@c -*-texinfo-*- @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. @c Copyright (C) 1990-1995, 1998-1999, 2001-2012 Free Software Foundation, Inc. @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. @setfilename ../../info/modes @node Modes, Documentation, Keymaps, Top @chapter Major and Minor Modes @cindex mode A @dfn{mode} is a set of definitions that customize Emacs and can be turned on and off while you edit. There are two varieties of modes: @dfn{major modes}, which are mutually exclusive and used for editing particular kinds of text, and @dfn{minor modes}, which provide features that users can enable individually. This chapter describes how to write both major and minor modes, how to indicate them in the mode line, and how they run hooks supplied by the user. For related topics such as keymaps and syntax tables, see @ref{Keymaps}, and @ref{Syntax Tables}. @menu * Hooks:: How to use hooks; how to write code that provides hooks. * Major Modes:: Defining major modes. * Minor Modes:: Defining minor modes. * Mode Line Format:: Customizing the text that appears in the mode line. * Imenu:: Providing a menu of definitions made in a buffer. * Font Lock Mode:: How modes can highlight text according to syntax. * Auto-Indentation:: How to teach Emacs to indent for a major mode. * Desktop Save Mode:: How modes can have buffer state saved between Emacs sessions. @end menu @node Hooks @section Hooks @cindex hooks A @dfn{hook} is a variable where you can store a function or functions to be called on a particular occasion by an existing program. Emacs provides hooks for the sake of customization. Most often, hooks are set up in the init file (@pxref{Init File}), but Lisp programs can set them also. @xref{Standard Hooks}, for a list of some standard hook variables. @cindex normal hook Most of the hooks in Emacs are @dfn{normal hooks}. These variables contain lists of functions to be called with no arguments. By convention, whenever the hook name ends in @samp{-hook}, that tells you it is normal. We try to make all hooks normal, as much as possible, so that you can use them in a uniform way. Every major mode command is supposed to run a normal hook called the @dfn{mode hook} as one of the last steps of initialization. This makes it easy for a user to customize the behavior of the mode, by overriding the buffer-local variable assignments already made by the mode. Most minor mode functions also run a mode hook at the end. But hooks are used in other contexts too. For example, the hook @code{suspend-hook} runs just before Emacs suspends itself (@pxref{Suspending Emacs}). The recommended way to add a hook function to a hook is by calling @code{add-hook} (@pxref{Setting Hooks}). The hook functions may be any of the valid kinds of functions that @code{funcall} accepts (@pxref{What Is a Function}). Most normal hook variables are initially void; @code{add-hook} knows how to deal with this. You can add hooks either globally or buffer-locally with @code{add-hook}. @cindex abnormal hook If the hook variable's name does not end with @samp{-hook}, that indicates it is probably an @dfn{abnormal hook}. That means the hook functions are called with arguments, or their return values are used in some way. The hook's documentation says how the functions are called. You can use @code{add-hook} to add a function to an abnormal hook, but you must write the function to follow the hook's calling convention. By convention, abnormal hook names end in @samp{-functions} or @samp{-hooks}. If the variable's name ends in @samp{-function}, then its value is just a single function, not a list of functions. @menu * Running Hooks:: How to run a hook. * Setting Hooks:: How to put functions on a hook, or remove them. @end menu @node Running Hooks @subsection Running Hooks In this section, we document the @code{run-hooks} function, which is used to run a normal hook. We also document the functions for running various kinds of abnormal hooks. @defun run-hooks &rest hookvars This function takes one or more normal hook variable names as arguments, and runs each hook in turn. Each argument should be a symbol that is a normal hook variable. These arguments are processed in the order specified. If a hook variable has a non-@code{nil} value, that value should be a list of functions. @code{run-hooks} calls all the functions, one by one, with no arguments. The hook variable's value can also be a single function---either a lambda expression or a symbol with a function definition---which @code{run-hooks} calls. But this usage is obsolete. If the hook variable is buffer-local, the buffer-local variable will be used instead of the global variable. However, if the buffer-local variable contains the element @code{t}, the global hook variable will be run as well. @end defun @defun run-hook-with-args hook &rest args This function runs an abnormal hook by calling all the hook functions in @var{hook}, passing each one the arguments @var{args}. @end defun @defun run-hook-with-args-until-failure hook &rest args This function runs an abnormal hook by calling each hook function in turn, stopping if one of them ``fails'' by returning @code{nil}. Each hook function is passed the arguments @var{args}. If this function stops because one of the hook functions fails, it returns @code{nil}; otherwise it returns a non-@code{nil} value. @end defun @defun run-hook-with-args-until-success hook &rest args This function runs an abnormal hook by calling each hook function, stopping if one of them ``succeeds'' by returning a non-@code{nil} value. Each hook function is passed the arguments @var{args}. If this function stops because one of the hook functions returns a non-@code{nil} value, it returns that value; otherwise it returns @code{nil}. @end defun @defmac with-wrapper-hook hook args &rest body This macro runs the abnormal hook @code{hook} as a series of nested ``wrapper functions'' around the @var{body} forms. The effect is similar to nested @code{around} advices (@pxref{Around-Advice}). Each hook function should accept an argument list consisting of a function @var{fun}, followed by the additional arguments listed in @var{args}. The first hook function is passed a function @var{fun} that, if it is called with arguments @var{args}, performs @var{body} (i.e., the default operation). The @var{fun} passed to each successive hook function is constructed from all the preceding hook functions (and @var{body}); if this @var{fun} is called with arguments @var{args}, it does what the @code{with-wrapper-hook} call would if the preceding hook functions were the only ones in @var{hook}. Each hook function may call its @var{fun} argument as many times as it wishes, including never. In that case, such a hook function acts to replace the default definition altogether, and any preceding hook functions. Of course, a subsequent hook function may do the same thing. Each hook function definition is used to construct the @var{fun} passed to the next hook function in @var{hook}, if any. The last or ``outermost'' @var{fun} is called once to produce the overall effect. When might you want to use a wrapper hook? The function @code{filter-buffer-substring} illustrates a common case. There is a basic functionality, performed by @var{body}---in this case, to extract a buffer-substring. Then any number of hook functions can act in sequence to modify that string, before returning the final result. A wrapper-hook also allows for a hook function to completely replace the default definition (by not calling @var{fun}). @end defmac @defun run-hook-wrapped hook wrap-function &rest args This function is similar to @code{run-hook-with-args-until-success}. Like that function, it runs the functions on the abnormal hook @code{hook}, stopping at the first one that returns non-@code{nil}. Instead of calling the hook functions directly, though, it actually calls @code{wrap-function} with arguments @code{fun} and @code{args}. @end defun @node Setting Hooks @subsection Setting Hooks Here's an example that uses a mode hook to turn on Auto Fill mode when in Lisp Interaction mode: @example (add-hook 'lisp-interaction-mode-hook 'auto-fill-mode) @end example @defun add-hook hook function &optional append local This function is the handy way to add function @var{function} to hook variable @var{hook}. You can use it for abnormal hooks as well as for normal hooks. @var{function} can be any Lisp function that can accept the proper number of arguments for @var{hook}. For example, @example (add-hook 'text-mode-hook 'my-text-hook-function) @end example @noindent adds @code{my-text-hook-function} to the hook called @code{text-mode-hook}. If @var{function} is already present in @var{hook} (comparing using @code{equal}), then @code{add-hook} does not add it a second time. If @var{function} has a non-@code{nil} property @code{permanent-local-hook}, then @code{kill-all-local-variables} (or changing major modes) won't delete it from the hook variable's local value. For a normal hook, hook functions should be designed so that the order in which they are executed does not matter. Any dependence on the order is asking for trouble. However, the order is predictable: normally, @var{function} goes at the front of the hook list, so it is executed first (barring another @code{add-hook} call). If the optional argument @var{append} is non-@code{nil}, the new hook function goes at the end of the hook list and is executed last. @code{add-hook} can handle the cases where @var{hook} is void or its value is a single function; it sets or changes the value to a list of functions. If @var{local} is non-@code{nil}, that says to add @var{function} to the buffer-local hook list instead of to the global hook list. This makes the hook buffer-local and adds @code{t} to the buffer-local value. The latter acts as a flag to run the hook functions in the default value as well as in the local value. @end defun @defun remove-hook hook function &optional local This function removes @var{function} from the hook variable @var{hook}. It compares @var{function} with elements of @var{hook} using @code{equal}, so it works for both symbols and lambda expressions. If @var{local} is non-@code{nil}, that says to remove @var{function} from the buffer-local hook list instead of from the global hook list. @end defun @node Major Modes @section Major Modes @cindex major mode @cindex major mode command Major modes specialize Emacs for editing particular kinds of text. Each buffer has one major mode at a time. Every major mode is associated with a @dfn{major mode command}, whose name should end in @samp{-mode}. This command takes care of switching to that mode in the current buffer, by setting various buffer-local variables such as a local keymap. @xref{Major Mode Conventions}. The least specialized major mode is called @dfn{Fundamental mode}, which has no mode-specific definitions or variable settings. @deffn Command fundamental-mode This is the major mode command for Fundamental mode. Unlike other mode commands, it does @emph{not} run any mode hooks (@pxref{Major Mode Conventions}), since you are not supposed to customize this mode. @end deffn The easiest way to write a major mode is to use the macro @code{define-derived-mode}, which sets up the new mode as a variant of an existing major mode. @xref{Derived Modes}. We recommend using @code{define-derived-mode} even if the new mode is not an obvious derivative of another mode, as it automatically enforces many coding conventions for you. @xref{Basic Major Modes}, for common modes to derive from. The standard GNU Emacs Lisp directory tree contains the code for several major modes, in files such as @file{text-mode.el}, @file{texinfo.el}, @file{lisp-mode.el}, and @file{rmail.el}. You can study these libraries to see how modes are written. @defopt major-mode The buffer-local value of this variable holds the symbol for the current major mode. Its default value holds the default major mode for new buffers. The standard default value is @code{fundamental-mode}. If the default value is @code{nil}, then whenever Emacs creates a new buffer via a command such as @kbd{C-x b} (@code{switch-to-buffer}), the new buffer is put in the major mode of the previously current buffer. As an exception, if the major mode of the previous buffer has a @code{mode-class} symbol property with value @code{special}, the new buffer is put in Fundamental mode (@pxref{Major Mode Conventions}). @end defopt @menu * Major Mode Conventions:: Coding conventions for keymaps, etc. * Auto Major Mode:: How Emacs chooses the major mode automatically. * Mode Help:: Finding out how to use a mode. * Derived Modes:: Defining a new major mode based on another major mode. * Basic Major Modes:: Modes that other modes are often derived from. * Mode Hooks:: Hooks run at the end of major mode commands. * Tabulated List Mode:: Parent mode for buffers containing tabulated data. * Generic Modes:: Defining a simple major mode that supports comment syntax and Font Lock mode. * Example Major Modes:: Text mode and Lisp modes. @end menu @node Major Mode Conventions @subsection Major Mode Conventions @cindex major mode conventions @cindex conventions for writing major modes The code for every major mode should follow various coding conventions, including conventions for local keymap and syntax table initialization, function and variable names, and hooks. If you use the @code{define-derived-mode} macro, it will take care of many of these conventions automatically. @xref{Derived Modes}. Note also that Fundamental mode is an exception to many of these conventions, because it represents the default state of Emacs. The following list of conventions is only partial. Each major mode should aim for consistency in general with other Emacs major modes, as this makes Emacs as a whole more coherent. It is impossible to list here all the possible points where this issue might come up; if the Emacs developers point out an area where your major mode deviates from the usual conventions, please make it compatible. @itemize @bullet @item Define a major mode command whose name ends in @samp{-mode}. When called with no arguments, this command should switch to the new mode in the current buffer by setting up the keymap, syntax table, and buffer-local variables in an existing buffer. It should not change the buffer's contents. @item Write a documentation string for this command that describes the special commands available in this mode. @xref{Mode Help}. The documentation string may include the special documentation substrings, @samp{\[@var{command}]}, @samp{\@{@var{keymap}@}}, and @samp{\<@var{keymap}>}, which allow the help display to adapt automatically to the user's own key bindings. @xref{Keys in Documentation}. @item The major mode command should start by calling @code{kill-all-local-variables}. This runs the normal hook @code{change-major-mode-hook}, then gets rid of the buffer-local variables of the major mode previously in effect. @xref{Creating Buffer-Local}. @item The major mode command should set the variable @code{major-mode} to the major mode command symbol. This is how @code{describe-mode} discovers which documentation to print. @item The major mode command should set the variable @code{mode-name} to the ``pretty'' name of the mode, usually a string (but see @ref{Mode Line Data}, for other possible forms). The name of the mode appears in the mode line. @item @cindex functions in modes Since all global names are in the same name space, all the global variables, constants, and functions that are part of the mode should have names that start with the major mode name (or with an abbreviation of it if the name is long). @xref{Coding Conventions}. @item In a major mode for editing some kind of structured text, such as a programming language, indentation of text according to structure is probably useful. So the mode should set @code{indent-line-function} to a suitable function, and probably customize other variables for indentation. @xref{Auto-Indentation}. @item @cindex keymaps in modes The major mode should usually have its own keymap, which is used as the local keymap in all buffers in that mode. The major mode command should call @code{use-local-map} to install this local map. @xref{Active Keymaps}, for more information. This keymap should be stored permanently in a global variable named @code{@var{modename}-mode-map}. Normally the library that defines the mode sets this variable. @xref{Tips for Defining}, for advice about how to write the code to set up the mode's keymap variable. @item The key sequences bound in a major mode keymap should usually start with @kbd{C-c}, followed by a control character, a digit, or @kbd{@{}, @kbd{@}}, @kbd{<}, @kbd{>}, @kbd{:} or @kbd{;}. The other punctuation characters are reserved for minor modes, and ordinary letters are reserved for users. A major mode can also rebind the keys @kbd{M-n}, @kbd{M-p} and @kbd{M-s}. The bindings for @kbd{M-n} and @kbd{M-p} should normally be some kind of ``moving forward and backward,'' but this does not necessarily mean cursor motion. It is legitimate for a major mode to rebind a standard key sequence if it provides a command that does ``the same job'' in a way better suited to the text this mode is used for. For example, a major mode for editing a programming language might redefine @kbd{C-M-a} to ``move to the beginning of a function'' in a way that works better for that language. It is also legitimate for a major mode to rebind a standard key sequence whose standard meaning is rarely useful in that mode. For instance, minibuffer modes rebind @kbd{M-r}, whose standard meaning is rarely of any use in the minibuffer. Major modes such as Dired or Rmail that do not allow self-insertion of text can reasonably redefine letters and other printing characters as special commands. @item Major modes for editing text should not define @key{RET} to do anything other than insert a newline. However, it is ok for specialized modes for text that users don't directly edit, such as Dired and Info modes, to redefine @key{RET} to do something entirely different. @item Major modes should not alter options that are primarily a matter of user preference, such as whether Auto-Fill mode is enabled. Leave this to each user to decide. However, a major mode should customize other variables so that Auto-Fill mode will work usefully @emph{if} the user decides to use it. @item @cindex syntax tables in modes The mode may have its own syntax table or may share one with other related modes. If it has its own syntax table, it should store this in a variable named @code{@var{modename}-mode-syntax-table}. @xref{Syntax Tables}. @item If the mode handles a language that has a syntax for comments, it should set the variables that define the comment syntax. @xref{Options for Comments,, Options Controlling Comments, emacs, The GNU Emacs Manual}. @item @cindex abbrev tables in modes The mode may have its own abbrev table or may share one with other related modes. If it has its own abbrev table, it should store this in a variable named @code{@var{modename}-mode-abbrev-table}. If the major mode command defines any abbrevs itself, it should pass @code{t} for the @var{system-flag} argument to @code{define-abbrev}. @xref{Defining Abbrevs}. @item The mode should specify how to do highlighting for Font Lock mode, by setting up a buffer-local value for the variable @code{font-lock-defaults} (@pxref{Font Lock Mode}). @item Each face that the mode defines should, if possible, inherit from an existing Emacs face. @xref{Basic Faces}, and @ref{Faces for Font Lock}. @item The mode should specify how Imenu should find the definitions or sections of a buffer, by setting up a buffer-local value for the variable @code{imenu-generic-expression}, for the two variables @code{imenu-prev-index-position-function} and @code{imenu-extract-index-name-function}, or for the variable @code{imenu-create-index-function} (@pxref{Imenu}). @item The mode can specify a local value for @code{eldoc-documentation-function} to tell ElDoc mode how to handle this mode. @item The mode can specify how to complete various keywords by adding one or more buffer-local entries to the special hook @code{completion-at-point-functions}. @xref{Completion in Buffers}. @item @cindex buffer-local variables in modes To make a buffer-local binding for an Emacs customization variable, use @code{make-local-variable} in the major mode command, not @code{make-variable-buffer-local}. The latter function would make the variable local to every buffer in which it is subsequently set, which would affect buffers that do not use this mode. It is undesirable for a mode to have such global effects. @xref{Buffer-Local Variables}. With rare exceptions, the only reasonable way to use @code{make-variable-buffer-local} in a Lisp package is for a variable which is used only within that package. Using it on a variable used by other packages would interfere with them. @item @cindex mode hook @cindex major mode hook Each major mode should have a normal @dfn{mode hook} named @code{@var{modename}-mode-hook}. The very last thing the major mode command should do is to call @code{run-mode-hooks}. This runs the normal hook @code{change-major-mode-after-body-hook}, the mode hook, and then the normal hook @code{after-change-major-mode-hook}. @xref{Mode Hooks}. @item The major mode command may start by calling some other major mode command (called the @dfn{parent mode}) and then alter some of its settings. A mode that does this is called a @dfn{derived mode}. The recommended way to define one is to use the @code{define-derived-mode} macro, but this is not required. Such a mode should call the parent mode command inside a @code{delay-mode-hooks} form. (Using @code{define-derived-mode} does this automatically.) @xref{Derived Modes}, and @ref{Mode Hooks}. @item If something special should be done if the user switches a buffer from this mode to any other major mode, this mode can set up a buffer-local value for @code{change-major-mode-hook} (@pxref{Creating Buffer-Local}). @item If this mode is appropriate only for specially-prepared text produced by the mode itself (rather than by the user typing at the keyboard or by an external file), then the major mode command symbol should have a property named @code{mode-class} with value @code{special}, put on as follows: @kindex mode-class @r{(property)} @cindex @code{special} modes @example (put 'funny-mode 'mode-class 'special) @end example @noindent This tells Emacs that new buffers created while the current buffer is in Funny mode should not be put in Funny mode, even though the default value of @code{major-mode} is @code{nil}. By default, the value of @code{nil} for @code{major-mode} means to use the current buffer's major mode when creating new buffers (@pxref{Auto Major Mode}), but with such @code{special} modes, Fundamental mode is used instead. Modes such as Dired, Rmail, and Buffer List use this feature. The function @code{view-buffer} does not enable View mode in buffers whose mode-class is special, because such modes usually provide their own View-like bindings. The @code{define-derived-mode} macro automatically marks the derived mode as special if the parent mode is special. Special mode is a convenient parent for such modes to inherit from; @xref{Basic Major Modes}. @item If you want to make the new mode the default for files with certain recognizable names, add an element to @code{auto-mode-alist} to select the mode for those file names (@pxref{Auto Major Mode}). If you define the mode command to autoload, you should add this element in the same file that calls @code{autoload}. If you use an autoload cookie for the mode command, you can also use an autoload cookie for the form that adds the element (@pxref{autoload cookie}). If you do not autoload the mode command, it is sufficient to add the element in the file that contains the mode definition. @item @cindex mode loading The top-level forms in the file defining the mode should be written so that they may be evaluated more than once without adverse consequences. For instance, use @code{defvar} or @code{defcustom} to set mode-related variables, so that they are not reinitialized if they already have a value (@pxref{Defining Variables}). @end itemize @node Auto Major Mode @subsection How Emacs Chooses a Major Mode @cindex major mode, automatic selection When Emacs visits a file, it automatically selects a major mode for the buffer based on information in the file name or in the file itself. It also processes local variables specified in the file text. @deffn Command normal-mode &optional find-file This function establishes the proper major mode and buffer-local variable bindings for the current buffer. First it calls @code{set-auto-mode} (see below), then it runs @code{hack-local-variables} to parse, and bind or evaluate as appropriate, the file's local variables (@pxref{File Local Variables}). If the @var{find-file} argument to @code{normal-mode} is non-@code{nil}, @code{normal-mode} assumes that the @code{find-file} function is calling it. In this case, it may process local variables in the @samp{-*-} line or at the end of the file. The variable @code{enable-local-variables} controls whether to do so. @xref{File Variables, , Local Variables in Files, emacs, The GNU Emacs Manual}, for the syntax of the local variables section of a file. If you run @code{normal-mode} interactively, the argument @var{find-file} is normally @code{nil}. In this case, @code{normal-mode} unconditionally processes any file local variables. The function calls @code{set-auto-mode} to choose a major mode. If this does not specify a mode, the buffer stays in the major mode determined by the default value of @code{major-mode} (see below). @cindex file mode specification error @code{normal-mode} uses @code{condition-case} around the call to the major mode command, so errors are caught and reported as a @samp{File mode specification error}, followed by the original error message. @end deffn @defun set-auto-mode &optional keep-mode-if-same @cindex visited file mode This function selects the major mode that is appropriate for the current buffer. It bases its decision (in order of precedence) on the @w{@samp{-*-}} line, on any @samp{mode:} local variable near the end of a file, on the @w{@samp{#!}} line (using @code{interpreter-mode-alist}), on the text at the beginning of the buffer (using @code{magic-mode-alist}), and finally on the visited file name (using @code{auto-mode-alist}). @xref{Choosing Modes, , How Major Modes are Chosen, emacs, The GNU Emacs Manual}. If @code{enable-local-variables} is @code{nil}, @code{set-auto-mode} does not check the @w{@samp{-*-}} line, or near the end of the file, for any mode tag. @vindex inhibit-local-variables-regexps There are some file types where it is not appropriate to scan the file contents for a mode specifier. For example, a tar archive may happen to contain, near the end of the file, a member file that has a local variables section specifying a mode for that particular file. This should not be applied to the containing tar file. Similarly, a tiff image file might just happen to contain a first line that seems to match the @w{@samp{-*-}} pattern. For these reasons, both these file extensions are members of the list @var{inhibit-local-variables-regexps}. Add patterns to this list to prevent Emacs searching them for local variables of any kind (not just mode specifiers). If @var{keep-mode-if-same} is non-@code{nil}, this function does not call the mode command if the buffer is already in the proper major mode. For instance, @code{set-visited-file-name} sets this to @code{t} to avoid killing buffer local variables that the user may have set. @end defun @defun set-buffer-major-mode buffer This function sets the major mode of @var{buffer} to the default value of @code{major-mode}; if that is @code{nil}, it uses the current buffer's major mode (if that is suitable). As an exception, if @var{buffer}'s name is @file{*scratch*}, it sets the mode to @code{initial-major-mode}. The low-level primitives for creating buffers do not use this function, but medium-level commands such as @code{switch-to-buffer} and @code{find-file-noselect} use it whenever they create buffers. @end defun @defopt initial-major-mode @cindex @file{*scratch*} The value of this variable determines the major mode of the initial @file{*scratch*} buffer. The value should be a symbol that is a major mode command. The default value is @code{lisp-interaction-mode}. @end defopt @defvar interpreter-mode-alist This variable specifies major modes to use for scripts that specify a command interpreter in a @samp{#!} line. Its value is an alist with elements of the form @code{(@var{interpreter} . @var{mode})}; for example, @code{("perl" . perl-mode)} is one element present by default. The element says to use mode @var{mode} if the file specifies an interpreter which matches @var{interpreter}. @end defvar @defvar magic-mode-alist This variable's value is an alist with elements of the form @code{(@var{regexp} . @var{function})}, where @var{regexp} is a regular expression and @var{function} is a function or @code{nil}. After visiting a file, @code{set-auto-mode} calls @var{function} if the text at the beginning of the buffer matches @var{regexp} and @var{function} is non-@code{nil}; if @var{function} is @code{nil}, @code{auto-mode-alist} gets to decide the mode. @end defvar @defvar magic-fallback-mode-alist This works like @code{magic-mode-alist}, except that it is handled only if @code{auto-mode-alist} does not specify a mode for this file. @end defvar @defvar auto-mode-alist This variable contains an association list of file name patterns (regular expressions) and corresponding major mode commands. Usually, the file name patterns test for suffixes, such as @samp{.el} and @samp{.c}, but this need not be the case. An ordinary element of the alist looks like @code{(@var{regexp} . @var{mode-function})}. For example, @smallexample @group (("\\`/tmp/fol/" . text-mode) ("\\.texinfo\\'" . texinfo-mode) ("\\.texi\\'" . texinfo-mode) @end group @group ("\\.el\\'" . emacs-lisp-mode) ("\\.c\\'" . c-mode) ("\\.h\\'" . c-mode) @dots{}) @end group @end smallexample When you visit a file whose expanded file name (@pxref{File Name Expansion}), with version numbers and backup suffixes removed using @code{file-name-sans-versions} (@pxref{File Name Components}), matches a @var{regexp}, @code{set-auto-mode} calls the corresponding @var{mode-function}. This feature enables Emacs to select the proper major mode for most files. If an element of @code{auto-mode-alist} has the form @code{(@var{regexp} @var{function} t)}, then after calling @var{function}, Emacs searches @code{auto-mode-alist} again for a match against the portion of the file name that did not match before. This feature is useful for uncompression packages: an entry of the form @code{("\\.gz\\'" @var{function} t)} can uncompress the file and then put the uncompressed file in the proper mode according to the name sans @samp{.gz}. Here is an example of how to prepend several pattern pairs to @code{auto-mode-alist}. (You might use this sort of expression in your init file.) @smallexample @group (setq auto-mode-alist (append ;; @r{File name (within directory) starts with a dot.} '(("/\\.[^/]*\\'" . fundamental-mode) ;; @r{File name has no dot.} ("/[^\\./]*\\'" . fundamental-mode) ;; @r{File name ends in @samp{.C}.} ("\\.C\\'" . c++-mode)) auto-mode-alist)) @end group @end smallexample @end defvar @node Mode Help @subsection Getting Help about a Major Mode @cindex mode help @cindex help for major mode @cindex documentation for major mode The @code{describe-mode} function provides information about major modes. It is normally bound to @kbd{C-h m}. It uses the value of the variable @code{major-mode} (@pxref{Major Modes}), which is why every major mode command needs to set that variable. @deffn Command describe-mode This function displays the documentation of the current major mode. The @code{describe-mode} function calls the @code{documentation} function using the value of @code{major-mode} as an argument. Thus, it displays the documentation string of the major mode command. (@xref{Accessing Documentation}.) @end deffn @node Derived Modes @subsection Defining Derived Modes @cindex derived mode The recommended way to define a new major mode is to derive it from an existing one using @code{define-derived-mode}. If there is no closely related mode, you should inherit from either @code{text-mode}, @code{special-mode}, or @code{prog-mode}. @xref{Basic Major Modes}. If none of these are suitable, you can inherit from @code{fundamental-mode} (@pxref{Major Modes}). @defmac define-derived-mode variant parent name docstring keyword-args@dots{} body@dots{} This macro defines @var{variant} as a major mode command, using @var{name} as the string form of the mode name. @var{variant} and @var{parent} should be unquoted symbols. The new command @var{variant} is defined to call the function @var{parent}, then override certain aspects of that parent mode: @itemize @bullet @item The new mode has its own sparse keymap, named @code{@var{variant}-map}. @code{define-derived-mode} makes the parent mode's keymap the parent of the new map, unless @code{@var{variant}-map} is already set and already has a parent. @item The new mode has its own syntax table, kept in the variable @code{@var{variant}-syntax-table}, unless you override this using the @code{:syntax-table} keyword (see below). @code{define-derived-mode} makes the parent mode's syntax-table the parent of @code{@var{variant}-syntax-table}, unless the latter is already set and already has a parent different from the standard syntax table. @item The new mode has its own abbrev table, kept in the variable @code{@var{variant}-abbrev-table}, unless you override this using the @code{:abbrev-table} keyword (see below). @item The new mode has its own mode hook, @code{@var{variant}-hook}. It runs this hook, after running the hooks of its ancestor modes, with @code{run-mode-hooks}, as the last thing it does. @xref{Mode Hooks}. @end itemize In addition, you can specify how to override other aspects of @var{parent} with @var{body}. The command @var{variant} evaluates the forms in @var{body} after setting up all its usual overrides, just before running the mode hooks. If @var{parent} has a non-@code{nil} @code{mode-class} symbol property, then @code{define-derived-mode} sets the @code{mode-class} property of @var{variant} to the same value. This ensures, for example, that if @var{parent} is a special mode, then @var{variant} is also a special mode (@pxref{Major Mode Conventions}). You can also specify @code{nil} for @var{parent}. This gives the new mode no parent. Then @code{define-derived-mode} behaves as described above, but, of course, omits all actions connected with @var{parent}. The argument @var{docstring} specifies the documentation string for the new mode. @code{define-derived-mode} adds some general information about the mode's hook, followed by the mode's keymap, at the end of this documentation string. If you omit @var{docstring}, @code{define-derived-mode} generates a documentation string. The @var{keyword-args} are pairs of keywords and values. The values are evaluated. The following keywords are currently supported: @table @code @item :syntax-table You can use this to explicitly specify a syntax table for the new mode. If you specify a @code{nil} value, the new mode uses the same syntax table as @var{parent}, or the standard syntax table if @var{parent} is @code{nil}. (Note that this does @emph{not} follow the convention used for non-keyword arguments that a @code{nil} value is equivalent with not specifying the argument.) @item :abbrev-table You can use this to explicitly specify an abbrev table for the new mode. If you specify a @code{nil} value, the new mode uses the same abbrev table as @var{parent}, or @code{fundamental-mode-abbrev-table} if @var{parent} is @code{nil}. (Again, a @code{nil} value is @emph{not} equivalent to not specifying this keyword.) @item :group If this is specified, the value should be the customization group for this mode. (Not all major modes have one.) Only the (still experimental and unadvertised) command @code{customize-mode} currently uses this. @code{define-derived-mode} does @emph{not} automatically define the specified customization group. @end table Here is a hypothetical example: @example (define-derived-mode hypertext-mode text-mode "Hypertext" "Major mode for hypertext. \\@{hypertext-mode-map@}" (setq case-fold-search nil)) (define-key hypertext-mode-map [down-mouse-3] 'do-hyper-link) @end example Do not write an @code{interactive} spec in the definition; @code{define-derived-mode} does that automatically. @end defmac @defun derived-mode-p &rest modes This function returns non-@code{nil} if the current major mode is derived from any of the major modes given by the symbols @var{modes}. @end defun @node Basic Major Modes @subsection Basic Major Modes Apart from Fundamental mode, there are three major modes that other major modes commonly derive from: Text mode, Prog mode, and Special mode. While Text mode is useful in its own right (e.g. for editing files ending in @file{.txt}), Prog mode and Special mode exist mainly to let other modes derive from them. @vindex prog-mode-hook As far as possible, new major modes should be derived, either directly or indirectly, from one of these three modes. One reason is that this allows users to customize a single mode hook (e.g. @code{prog-mode-hook}) for an entire family of relevant modes (e.g. all programming language modes). @deffn Command text-mode Text mode is a major mode for editing human languages. It defines the @samp{"} and @samp{\} characters as having punctuation syntax (@pxref{Syntax Class Table}), and binds @kbd{M-@key{TAB}} to @code{ispell-complete-word} (@pxref{Spelling,,, emacs, The GNU Emacs Manual}). An example of a major mode derived from Text mode is HTML mode. @xref{HTML Mode,,SGML and HTML Modes, emacs, The GNU Emacs Manual}. @end deffn @deffn Command prog-mode Prog mode is a basic major mode for buffers containing programming language source code. Most of the programming language major modes built into Emacs are derived from it. Prog mode binds @code{parse-sexp-ignore-comments} to @code{t} (@pxref{Motion via Parsing}) and @code{bidi-paragraph-direction} to @code{left-to-right} (@pxref{Bidirectional Display}). @end deffn @deffn Command special-mode Special mode is a basic major mode for buffers containing text that is produced specially by Emacs, rather than directly from a file. Major modes derived from Special mode are given a @code{mode-class} property of @code{special} (@pxref{Major Mode Conventions}). Special mode sets the buffer to read-only. Its keymap defines several common bindings, including @kbd{q} for @code{quit-window}, @kbd{z} for @code{kill-this-buffer}, and @kbd{g} for @code{revert-buffer} (@pxref{Reverting}). An example of a major mode derived from Special mode is Buffer Menu mode, which is used by the @file{*Buffer List*} buffer. @xref{List Buffers,,Listing Existing Buffers, emacs, The GNU Emacs Manual}. @end deffn In addition, modes for buffers of tabulated data can inherit from Tabulated List mode, which is in turn derived from Special mode. @xref{Tabulated List Mode}. @node Mode Hooks @subsection Mode Hooks Every major mode command should finish by running the mode-independent normal hook @code{change-major-mode-after-body-hook}, its mode hook, and the normal hook @code{after-change-major-mode-hook}. It does this by calling @code{run-mode-hooks}. If the major mode is a derived mode, that is if it calls another major mode (the parent mode) in its body, it should do this inside @code{delay-mode-hooks} so that the parent won't run these hooks itself. Instead, the derived mode's call to @code{run-mode-hooks} runs the parent's mode hook too. @xref{Major Mode Conventions}. Emacs versions before Emacs 22 did not have @code{delay-mode-hooks}. Versions before 24 did not have @code{change-major-mode-after-body-hook}. When user-implemented major modes do not use @code{run-mode-hooks} and have not been updated to use these newer features, they won't entirely follow these conventions: they may run the parent's mode hook too early, or fail to run @code{after-change-major-mode-hook}. If you encounter such a major mode, please correct it to follow these conventions. When you defined a major mode using @code{define-derived-mode}, it automatically makes sure these conventions are followed. If you define a major mode ``by hand,'' not using @code{define-derived-mode}, use the following functions to handle these conventions automatically. @defun run-mode-hooks &rest hookvars Major modes should run their mode hook using this function. It is similar to @code{run-hooks} (@pxref{Hooks}), but it also runs @code{change-major-mode-after-body-hook} and @code{after-change-major-mode-hook}. When this function is called during the execution of a @code{delay-mode-hooks} form, it does not run the hooks immediately. Instead, it arranges for the next call to @code{run-mode-hooks} to run them. @end defun @defmac delay-mode-hooks body@dots{} When one major mode command calls another, it should do so inside of @code{delay-mode-hooks}. This macro executes @var{body}, but tells all @code{run-mode-hooks} calls during the execution of @var{body} to delay running their hooks. The hooks will actually run during the next call to @code{run-mode-hooks} after the end of the @code{delay-mode-hooks} construct. @end defmac @defvar change-major-mode-after-body-hook This is a normal hook run by @code{run-mode-hooks}. It is run before the mode hooks. @end defvar @defvar after-change-major-mode-hook This is a normal hook run by @code{run-mode-hooks}. It is run at the very end of every properly-written major mode command. @end defvar @node Tabulated List Mode @subsection Tabulated List mode @cindex Tabulated List mode Tabulated List mode is a major mode for displaying tabulated data, i.e.@: data consisting of @dfn{entries}, each entry occupying one row of text with its contents divided into columns. Tabulated List mode provides facilities for pretty-printing rows and columns, and sorting the rows according to the values in each column. It is derived from Special mode (@pxref{Basic Major Modes}). Tabulated List mode is intended to be used as a parent mode by a more specialized major mode. Examples include Process Menu mode (@pxref{Process Information}) and Package Menu mode (@pxref{Package Menu,,, emacs, The GNU Emacs Manual}). @findex tabulated-list-mode Such a derived mode should use @code{define-derived-mode} in the usual way, specifying @code{tabulated-list-mode} as the second argument (@pxref{Derived Modes}). The body of the @code{define-derived-mode} form should specify the format of the tabulated data, by assigning values to the variables documented below; then, it should call the function @code{tabulated-list-init-header} to initialize the header line. The derived mode should also define a @dfn{listing command}. This, not the mode command, is what the user calls (e.g.@: @kbd{M-x list-processes}). The listing command should create or switch to a buffer, turn on the derived mode, specify the tabulated data, and finally call @code{tabulated-list-print} to populate the buffer. @defvar tabulated-list-format This buffer-local variable specifies the format of the Tabulated List data. Its value should be a vector. Each element of the vector represents a data column, and should be a list @code{(@var{name} @var{width} @var{sort})}, where @itemize @item @var{name} is the column's name (a string). @item @var{width} is the width to reserve for the column (an integer). This is meaningless for the last column, which runs to the end of each line. @item @var{sort} specifies how to sort entries by the column. If @code{nil}, the column cannot be used for sorting. If @code{t}, the column is sorted by comparing string values. Otherwise, this should be a predicate function for @code{sort} (@pxref{Rearrangement}), which accepts two arguments with the same form as the elements of @code{tabulated-list-entries} (see below). @end itemize @end defvar @defvar tabulated-list-entries This buffer-local variable specifies the entries displayed in the Tabulated List buffer. Its value should be either a list, or a function. If the value is a list, each list element corresponds to one entry, and should have the form @w{@code{(@var{id} @var{contents})}}, where @itemize @item @var{id} is either @code{nil}, or a Lisp object that identifies the entry. If the latter, the cursor stays on the ``same'' entry when re-sorting entries. Comparison is done with @code{equal}. @item @var{contents} is a vector with the same number of elements as @code{tabulated-list-format}. Each vector element is either a string, which is inserted into the buffer as-is, or a list @code{(@var{label} . @var{properties})}, which means to insert a text button by calling @code{insert-text-button} with @var{label} and @var{properties} as arguments (@pxref{Making Buttons}). There should be no newlines in any of these strings. @end itemize Otherwise, the value should be a function which returns a list of the above form when called with no arguments. @end defvar @defvar tabulated-list-revert-hook This normal hook is run prior to reverting a Tabulated List buffer. A derived mode can add a function to this hook to recompute @code{tabulated-list-entries}. @end defvar @defvar tabulated-list-printer The value of this variable is the function called to insert an entry at point, including its terminating newline. The function should accept two arguments, @var{id} and @var{contents}, having the same meanings as in @code{tabulated-list-entries}. The default value is a function which inserts an entry in a straightforward way; a mode which uses Tabulated List mode in a more complex way can specify another function. @end defvar @defvar tabulated-list-sort-key The value of this variable specifies the current sort key for the Tabulated List buffer. If it is @code{nil}, no sorting is done. Otherwise, it should have the form @code{(@var{name} . @var{flip})}, where @var{name} is a string matching one of the column names in @code{tabulated-list-format}, and @var{flip}, if non-@code{nil}, means to invert the sort order. @end defvar @defun tabulated-list-init-header This function computes and sets @code{header-line-format} for the Tabulated List buffer (@pxref{Header Lines}), and assigns a keymap to the header line to allow sort entries by clicking on column headers. Modes derived from Tabulated List mode should call this after setting the above variables (in particular, only after setting @code{tabulated-list-format}). @end defun @defun tabulated-list-print &optional remember-pos This function populates the current buffer with entries. It should be called by the listing command. It erases the buffer, sorts the entries specified by @code{tabulated-list-entries} according to @code{tabulated-list-sort-key}, then calls the function specified by @code{tabulated-list-printer} to insert each entry. If the optional argument @var{remember-pos} is non-@code{nil}, this function looks for the @var{id} element on the current line, if any, and tries to move to that entry after all the entries are (re)inserted. @end defun @node Generic Modes @subsection Generic Modes @cindex generic mode @dfn{Generic modes} are simple major modes with basic support for comment syntax and Font Lock mode. To define a generic mode, use the macro @code{define-generic-mode}. See the file @file{generic-x.el} for some examples of the use of @code{define-generic-mode}. @defmac define-generic-mode mode comment-list keyword-list font-lock-list auto-mode-list function-list &optional docstring This macro defines a generic mode command named @var{mode} (a symbol, not quoted). The optional argument @var{docstring} is the documentation for the mode command. If you do not supply it, @code{define-generic-mode} generates one by default. The argument @var{comment-list} is a list in which each element is either a character, a string of one or two characters, or a cons cell. A character or a string is set up in the mode's syntax table as a ``comment starter.'' If the entry is a cons cell, the @sc{car} is set up as a ``comment starter'' and the @sc{cdr} as a ``comment ender.'' (Use @code{nil} for the latter if you want comments to end at the end of the line.) Note that the syntax table mechanism has limitations about what comment starters and enders are actually possible. @xref{Syntax Tables}. The argument @var{keyword-list} is a list of keywords to highlight with @code{font-lock-keyword-face}. Each keyword should be a string. Meanwhile, @var{font-lock-list} is a list of additional expressions to highlight. Each element of this list should have the same form as an element of @code{font-lock-keywords}. @xref{Search-based Fontification}. The argument @var{auto-mode-list} is a list of regular expressions to add to the variable @code{auto-mode-alist}. They are added by the execution of the @code{define-generic-mode} form, not by expanding the macro call. Finally, @var{function-list} is a list of functions for the mode command to call for additional setup. It calls these functions just before it runs the mode hook variable @code{@var{mode}-hook}. @end defmac @node Example Major Modes @subsection Major Mode Examples Text mode is perhaps the simplest mode besides Fundamental mode. Here are excerpts from @file{text-mode.el} that illustrate many of the conventions listed above: @smallexample @group ;; @r{Create the syntax table for this mode.} (defvar text-mode-syntax-table (let ((st (make-syntax-table))) (modify-syntax-entry ?\" ". " st) (modify-syntax-entry ?\\ ". " st) ;; Add `p' so M-c on `hello' leads to `Hello', not `hello'. (modify-syntax-entry ?' "w p" st) st) "Syntax table used while in `text-mode'.") @end group ;; @r{Create the keymap for this mode.} @group (defvar text-mode-map (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap))) (define-key map "\e\t" 'ispell-complete-word) map) "Keymap for `text-mode'. Many other modes, such as `mail-mode', `outline-mode' and `indented-text-mode', inherit all the commands defined in this map.") @end group @end smallexample Here is how the actual mode command is defined now: @smallexample @group (define-derived-mode text-mode nil "Text" "Major mode for editing text written for humans to read. In this mode, paragraphs are delimited only by blank or white lines. You can thus get the full benefit of adaptive filling (see the variable `adaptive-fill-mode'). \\@{text-mode-map@} Turning on Text mode runs the normal hook `text-mode-hook'." @end group @group (set (make-local-variable 'text-mode-variant) t) (set (make-local-variable 'require-final-newline) mode-require-final-newline) (set (make-local-variable 'indent-line-function) 'indent-relative)) @end group @end smallexample @noindent (The last line is redundant nowadays, since @code{indent-relative} is the default value, and we'll delete it in a future version.) @cindex @file{lisp-mode.el} The three Lisp modes (Lisp mode, Emacs Lisp mode, and Lisp Interaction mode) have more features than Text mode and the code is correspondingly more complicated. Here are excerpts from @file{lisp-mode.el} that illustrate how these modes are written. Here is how the Lisp mode syntax and abbrev tables are defined: @cindex syntax table example @smallexample @group ;; @r{Create mode-specific table variables.} (defvar lisp-mode-abbrev-table nil) (define-abbrev-table 'lisp-mode-abbrev-table ()) (defvar lisp-mode-syntax-table (let ((table (copy-syntax-table emacs-lisp-mode-syntax-table))) (modify-syntax-entry ?\[ "_ " table) (modify-syntax-entry ?\] "_ " table) (modify-syntax-entry ?# "' 14" table) (modify-syntax-entry ?| "\" 23bn" table) table) "Syntax table used in `lisp-mode'.") @end group @end smallexample The three modes for Lisp share much of their code. For instance, each calls the following function to set various variables: @smallexample @group (defun lisp-mode-variables (&optional lisp-syntax keywords-case-insensitive) (when lisp-syntax (set-syntax-table lisp-mode-syntax-table)) (setq local-abbrev-table lisp-mode-abbrev-table) @dots{} @end group @end smallexample @noindent Amongst other things, this function sets up the @code{comment-start} variable to handle Lisp comments: @smallexample @group (make-local-variable 'comment-start) (setq comment-start ";") @dots{} @end group @end smallexample Each of the different Lisp modes has a slightly different keymap. For example, Lisp mode binds @kbd{C-c C-z} to @code{run-lisp}, but the other Lisp modes do not. However, all Lisp modes have some commands in common. The following code sets up the common commands: @smallexample @group (defvar lisp-mode-shared-map (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap))) (define-key map "\e\C-q" 'indent-sexp) (define-key map "\177" 'backward-delete-char-untabify) map) "Keymap for commands shared by all sorts of Lisp modes.") @end group @end smallexample @noindent And here is the code to set up the keymap for Lisp mode: @smallexample @group (defvar lisp-mode-map (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap)) (menu-map (make-sparse-keymap "Lisp"))) (set-keymap-parent map lisp-mode-shared-map) (define-key map "\e\C-x" 'lisp-eval-defun) (define-key map "\C-c\C-z" 'run-lisp) @dots{} map) "Keymap for ordinary Lisp mode. All commands in `lisp-mode-shared-map' are inherited by this map.") @end group @end smallexample @noindent Finally, here is the major mode command for Lisp mode: @smallexample @group (define-derived-mode lisp-mode prog-mode "Lisp" "Major mode for editing Lisp code for Lisps other than GNU Emacs Lisp. Commands: Delete converts tabs to spaces as it moves back. Blank lines separate paragraphs. Semicolons start comments. \\@{lisp-mode-map@} Note that `run-lisp' may be used either to start an inferior Lisp job or to switch back to an existing one. @end group @group Entry to this mode calls the value of `lisp-mode-hook' if that value is non-nil." (lisp-mode-variables nil t) (set (make-local-variable 'find-tag-default-function) 'lisp-find-tag-default) (make-local-variable 'comment-start-skip) (setq comment-start-skip "\\(\\(^\\|[^\\\\\n]\\)\\(\\\\\\\\\\)*\\)\\(;+\\|#|\\) *") (setq imenu-case-fold-search t)) @end group @end smallexample @node Minor Modes @section Minor Modes @cindex minor mode A @dfn{minor mode} provides optional features that users may enable or disable independently of the choice of major mode. Minor modes can be enabled individually or in combination. Most minor modes implement features that are independent of the major mode, and can thus be used with most major modes. For example, Auto Fill mode works with any major mode that permits text insertion. A few minor modes, however, are specific to a particular major mode. For example, Diff Auto Refine mode is a minor mode that is intended to be used only with Diff mode. Ideally, a minor mode should have its desired effect regardless of the other minor modes in effect. It should be possible to activate and deactivate minor modes in any order. @defvar minor-mode-list The value of this variable is a list of all minor mode commands. @end defvar @menu * Minor Mode Conventions:: Tips for writing a minor mode. * Keymaps and Minor Modes:: How a minor mode can have its own keymap. * Defining Minor Modes:: A convenient facility for defining minor modes. @end menu @node Minor Mode Conventions @subsection Conventions for Writing Minor Modes @cindex minor mode conventions @cindex conventions for writing minor modes There are conventions for writing minor modes just as there are for major modes. These conventions are described below. The easiest way to follow them is to use the macro @code{define-minor-mode}. @xref{Defining Minor Modes}. @itemize @bullet @item @cindex mode variable Define a variable whose name ends in @samp{-mode}. We call this the @dfn{mode variable}. The minor mode command should set this variable. The value will be @code{nil} is the mode is disabled, and non-@code{nil} if the mode is enabled. The variable should be buffer-local if the minor mode is buffer-local. This variable is used in conjunction with the @code{minor-mode-alist} to display the minor mode name in the mode line. It also determines whether the minor mode keymap is active, via @code{minor-mode-map-alist} (@pxref{Controlling Active Maps}). Individual commands or hooks can also check its value. @item Define a command, called the @dfn{mode command}, whose name is the same as the mode variable. Its job is to set the value of the mode variable, plus anything else that needs to be done to actually enable or disable the mode's features. The mode command should accept one optional argument. If called interactively with no prefix argument, it should toggle the mode (i.e.@: enable if it is disabled, and disable if it is enabled). If called interactively with a prefix argument, it should enable the mode if the argument is positive and disable it otherwise. If the mode command is called from Lisp (i.e.@: non-interactively), it should enable the mode if the argument is omitted or @code{nil}; it should toggle the mode if the argument is the symbol @code{toggle}; otherwise it should treat the argument in the same way as for an interactive call with a numeric prefix argument, as described above. The following example shows how to implement this behavior (it is similar to the code generated by the @code{define-minor-mode} macro): @example (interactive (list (or current-prefix-arg 'toggle))) (let ((enable (if (eq arg 'toggle) (not foo-mode) ; @r{this mode's mode variable} (> (prefix-numeric-value arg) 0)))) (if enable @var{do-enable} @var{do-disable})) @end example The reason for this somewhat complex behavior is that it lets users easily toggle the minor mode interactively, and also lets the minor mode be easily enabled in a mode hook, like this: @example (add-hook 'text-mode-hook 'foo-mode) @end example @noindent This behaves correctly whether or not @code{foo-mode} was already enabled, since the @code{foo-mode} mode command unconditionally enables the minor mode when it is called from Lisp with no argument. Disabling a minor mode in a mode hook is a little uglier: @example (add-hook 'text-mode-hook (lambda () (foo-mode -1))) @end example @noindent However, this is not very commonly done. @item Add an element to @code{minor-mode-alist} for each minor mode (@pxref{Definition of minor-mode-alist}), if you want to indicate the minor mode in the mode line. This element should be a list of the following form: @smallexample (@var{mode-variable} @var{string}) @end smallexample Here @var{mode-variable} is the variable that controls enabling of the minor mode, and @var{string} is a short string, starting with a space, to represent the mode in the mode line. These strings must be short so that there is room for several of them at once. When you add an element to @code{minor-mode-alist}, use @code{assq} to check for an existing element, to avoid duplication. For example: @smallexample @group (unless (assq 'leif-mode minor-mode-alist) (push '(leif-mode " Leif") minor-mode-alist)) @end group @end smallexample @noindent or like this, using @code{add-to-list} (@pxref{List Variables}): @smallexample @group (add-to-list 'minor-mode-alist '(leif-mode " Leif")) @end group @end smallexample @end itemize In addition, several major mode conventions apply to minor modes as well: those regarding the names of global symbols, the use of a hook at the end of the initialization function, and the use of keymaps and other tables. The minor mode should, if possible, support enabling and disabling via Custom (@pxref{Customization}). To do this, the mode variable should be defined with @code{defcustom}, usually with @code{:type 'boolean}. If just setting the variable is not sufficient to enable the mode, you should also specify a @code{:set} method which enables the mode by invoking the mode command. Note in the variable's documentation string that setting the variable other than via Custom may not take effect. Also, mark the definition with an autoload cookie (@pxref{autoload cookie}), and specify a @code{:require} so that customizing the variable will load the library that defines the mode. For example: @smallexample @group ;;;###autoload (defcustom msb-mode nil "Toggle msb-mode. Setting this variable directly does not take effect; use either \\[customize] or the function `msb-mode'." :set 'custom-set-minor-mode :initialize 'custom-initialize-default :version "20.4" :type 'boolean :group 'msb :require 'msb) @end group @end smallexample @node Keymaps and Minor Modes @subsection Keymaps and Minor Modes Each minor mode can have its own keymap, which is active when the mode is enabled. To set up a keymap for a minor mode, add an element to the alist @code{minor-mode-map-alist}. @xref{Definition of minor-mode-map-alist}. @cindex @code{self-insert-command}, minor modes One use of minor mode keymaps is to modify the behavior of certain self-inserting characters so that they do something else as well as self-insert. (Another way to customize @code{self-insert-command} is through @code{post-self-insert-hook}. Apart from this, the facilities for customizing @code{self-insert-command} are limited to special cases, designed for abbrevs and Auto Fill mode. Do not try substituting your own definition of @code{self-insert-command} for the standard one. The editor command loop handles this function specially.) The key sequences bound in a minor mode should consist of @kbd{C-c} followed by one of @kbd{.,/?`'"[]\|~!#$%^&*()-_+=}. (The other punctuation characters are reserved for major modes.) @node Defining Minor Modes @subsection Defining Minor Modes The macro @code{define-minor-mode} offers a convenient way of implementing a mode in one self-contained definition. @defmac define-minor-mode mode doc [init-value [lighter [keymap]]] keyword-args@dots{} body@dots{} This macro defines a new minor mode whose name is @var{mode} (a symbol). It defines a command named @var{mode} to toggle the minor mode, with @var{doc} as its documentation string. The toggle command takes one optional (prefix) argument. If called interactively with no argument it toggles the mode on or off. A positive prefix argument enables the mode, any other prefix argument disables it. From Lisp, an argument of @code{toggle} toggles the mode, whereas an omitted or @code{nil} argument enables the mode. This makes it easy to enable the minor mode in a major mode hook, for example. If @var{doc} is nil, the macro supplies a default documentation string explaining the above. By default, it also defines a variable named @var{mode}, which is set to @code{t} or @code{nil} by enabling or disabling the mode. The variable is initialized to @var{init-value}. Except in unusual circumstances (see below), this value must be @code{nil}. The string @var{lighter} says what to display in the mode line when the mode is enabled; if it is @code{nil}, the mode is not displayed in the mode line. The optional argument @var{keymap} specifies the keymap for the minor mode. If non-@code{nil}, it should be a variable name (whose value is a keymap), a keymap, or an alist of the form @example (@var{key-sequence} . @var{definition}) @end example @noindent where each @var{key-sequence} and @var{definition} are arguments suitable for passing to @code{define-key} (@pxref{Changing Key Bindings}). If @var{keymap} is a keymap or an alist, this also defines the variable @code{@var{mode}-map}. The above three arguments @var{init-value}, @var{lighter}, and @var{keymap} can be (partially) omitted when @var{keyword-args} are used. The @var{keyword-args} consist of keywords followed by corresponding values. A few keywords have special meanings: @table @code @item :group @var{group} Custom group name to use in all generated @code{defcustom} forms. Defaults to @var{mode} without the possible trailing @samp{-mode}. @strong{Warning:} don't use this default group name unless you have written a @code{defgroup} to define that group properly. @xref{Group Definitions}. @item :global @var{global} If non-@code{nil}, this specifies that the minor mode should be global rather than buffer-local. It defaults to @code{nil}. One of the effects of making a minor mode global is that the @var{mode} variable becomes a customization variable. Toggling it through the Customize interface turns the mode on and off, and its value can be saved for future Emacs sessions (@pxref{Saving Customizations,,, emacs, The GNU Emacs Manual}. For the saved variable to work, you should ensure that the @code{define-minor-mode} form is evaluated each time Emacs starts; for packages that are not part of Emacs, the easiest way to do this is to specify a @code{:require} keyword. @item :init-value @var{init-value} This is equivalent to specifying @var{init-value} positionally. @item :lighter @var{lighter} This is equivalent to specifying @var{lighter} positionally. @item :keymap @var{keymap} This is equivalent to specifying @var{keymap} positionally. @item :variable @var{place} This replaces the default variable @var{mode}, used to store the state of the mode. If you specify this, the @var{mode} variable is not defined, and any @var{init-value} argument is unused. @var{place} can be a different named variable (which you must define yourself), or anything that can be used with the @code{setf} function (@pxref{Generalized Variables,,, cl, Common Lisp Extensions}). @var{place} can also be a cons @code{(@var{get} . @var{set})}, where @var{get} is an expression that returns the current state, and @var{set} is a function of one argument (a state) that sets it. @item :after-hook @var{after-hook} This defines a single Lisp form which is evaluated after the mode hooks have run. It should not be quoted. @end table Any other keyword arguments are passed directly to the @code{defcustom} generated for the variable @var{mode}. The command named @var{mode} first performs the standard actions such as setting the variable named @var{mode} and then executes the @var{body} forms, if any. It then runs the mode hook variable @code{@var{mode}-hook} and finishes by evaluating any form in @code{:after-hook}. @end defmac The initial value must be @code{nil} except in cases where (1) the mode is preloaded in Emacs, or (2) it is painless for loading to enable the mode even though the user did not request it. For instance, if the mode has no effect unless something else is enabled, and will always be loaded by that time, enabling it by default is harmless. But these are unusual circumstances. Normally, the initial value must be @code{nil}. @findex easy-mmode-define-minor-mode The name @code{easy-mmode-define-minor-mode} is an alias for this macro. Here is an example of using @code{define-minor-mode}: @smallexample (define-minor-mode hungry-mode "Toggle Hungry mode. Interactively with no argument, this command toggles the mode. A positive prefix argument enables the mode, any other prefix argument disables it. From Lisp, argument omitted or nil enables the mode, `toggle' toggles the state. When Hungry mode is enabled, the control delete key gobbles all preceding whitespace except the last. See the command \\[hungry-electric-delete]." ;; The initial value. nil ;; The indicator for the mode line. " Hungry" ;; The minor mode bindings. '(([C-backspace] . hungry-electric-delete)) :group 'hunger) @end smallexample @noindent This defines a minor mode named ``Hungry mode,'' a command named @code{hungry-mode} to toggle it, a variable named @code{hungry-mode} which indicates whether the mode is enabled, and a variable named @code{hungry-mode-map} which holds the keymap that is active when the mode is enabled. It initializes the keymap with a key binding for @kbd{C-@key{DEL}}. It puts the variable @code{hungry-mode} into custom group @code{hunger}. There are no @var{body} forms---many minor modes don't need any. Here's an equivalent way to write it: @smallexample (define-minor-mode hungry-mode "Toggle Hungry mode. ...rest of documentation as before..." ;; The initial value. :init-value nil ;; The indicator for the mode line. :lighter " Hungry" ;; The minor mode bindings. :keymap '(([C-backspace] . hungry-electric-delete) ([C-M-backspace] . (lambda () (interactive) (hungry-electric-delete t)))) :group 'hunger) @end smallexample @defmac define-globalized-minor-mode global-mode mode turn-on keyword-args@dots{} This defines a global toggle named @var{global-mode} whose meaning is to enable or disable the buffer-local minor mode @var{mode} in all buffers. To turn on the minor mode in a buffer, it uses the function @var{turn-on}; to turn off the minor mode, it calls @code{mode} with @minus{}1 as argument. Globally enabling the mode also affects buffers subsequently created by visiting files, and buffers that use a major mode other than Fundamental mode; but it does not detect the creation of a new buffer in Fundamental mode. This defines the customization option @var{global-mode} (@pxref{Customization}), which can be toggled in the Customize interface to turn the minor mode on and off. As with @code{define-minor-mode}, you should ensure that the @code{define-globalized-minor-mode} form is evaluated each time Emacs starts, for example by providing a @code{:require} keyword. Use @code{:group @var{group}} in @var{keyword-args} to specify the custom group for the mode variable of the global minor mode. Generally speaking, when you define a globalized minor mode, you should also define a non-globalized version, so that people can use (or disable) it in individual buffers. This also allows them to disable a globally enabled minor mode in a specific major mode, by using that mode's hook. @end defmac @node Mode Line Format @section Mode Line Format @cindex mode line Each Emacs window (aside from minibuffer windows) typically has a mode line at the bottom, which displays status information about the buffer displayed in the window. The mode line contains information about the buffer, such as its name, associated file, depth of recursive editing, and major and minor modes. A window can also have a @dfn{header line}, which is much like the mode line but appears at the top of the window. This section describes how to control the contents of the mode line and header line. We include it in this chapter because much of the information displayed in the mode line relates to the enabled major and minor modes. @menu * Base: Mode Line Basics. Basic ideas of mode line control. * Data: Mode Line Data. The data structure that controls the mode line. * Top: Mode Line Top. The top level variable, mode-line-format. * Mode Line Variables:: Variables used in that data structure. * %-Constructs:: Putting information into a mode line. * Properties in Mode:: Using text properties in the mode line. * Header Lines:: Like a mode line, but at the top. * Emulating Mode Line:: Formatting text as the mode line would. @end menu @node Mode Line Basics @subsection Mode Line Basics The contents of each mode line are specified by the buffer-local variable @code{mode-line-format} (@pxref{Mode Line Top}). This variable holds a @dfn{mode line construct}: a template that controls what is displayed on the buffer's mode line. The value of @code{header-line-format} specifies the buffer's header line in the same way. All windows for the same buffer use the same @code{mode-line-format} and @code{header-line-format}. For efficiency, Emacs does not continuously recompute each window's mode line and header line. It does so when circumstances appear to call for it---for instance, if you change the window configuration, switch buffers, narrow or widen the buffer, scroll, or modify the buffer. If you alter any of the variables referenced by @code{mode-line-format} or @code{header-line-format} (@pxref{Mode Line Variables}), or any other data structures that affect how text is displayed (@pxref{Display}), you should use the function @code{force-mode-line-update} to update the display. @defun force-mode-line-update &optional all This function forces Emacs to update the current buffer's mode line and header line, based on the latest values of all relevant variables, during its next redisplay cycle. If the optional argument @var{all} is non-@code{nil}, it forces an update for all mode lines and header lines. This function also forces an update of the menu bar and frame title. @end defun The selected window's mode line is usually displayed in a different color using the face @code{mode-line}. Other windows' mode lines appear in the face @code{mode-line-inactive} instead. @xref{Faces}. @node Mode Line Data @subsection The Data Structure of the Mode Line @cindex mode line construct The mode line contents are controlled by a data structure called a @dfn{mode line construct}, made up of lists, strings, symbols, and numbers kept in buffer-local variables. Each data type has a specific meaning for the mode line appearance, as described below. The same data structure is used for constructing frame titles (@pxref{Frame Titles}) and header lines (@pxref{Header Lines}). A mode line construct may be as simple as a fixed string of text, but it usually specifies how to combine fixed strings with variables' values to construct the text. Many of these variables are themselves defined to have mode line constructs as their values. Here are the meanings of various data types as mode line constructs: @table @code @cindex percent symbol in mode line @item @var{string} A string as a mode line construct appears verbatim except for @dfn{@code{%}-constructs} in it. These stand for substitution of other data; see @ref{%-Constructs}. If parts of the string have @code{face} properties, they control display of the text just as they would text in the buffer. Any characters which have no @code{face} properties are displayed, by default, in the face @code{mode-line} or @code{mode-line-inactive} (@pxref{Standard Faces,,, emacs, The GNU Emacs Manual}). The @code{help-echo} and @code{local-map} properties in @var{string} have special meanings. @xref{Properties in Mode}. @item @var{symbol} A symbol as a mode line construct stands for its value. The value of @var{symbol} is used as a mode line construct, in place of @var{symbol}. However, the symbols @code{t} and @code{nil} are ignored, as is any symbol whose value is void. There is one exception: if the value of @var{symbol} is a string, it is displayed verbatim: the @code{%}-constructs are not recognized. Unless @var{symbol} is marked as ``risky'' (i.e., it has a non-@code{nil} @code{risky-local-variable} property), all text properties specified in @var{symbol}'s value are ignored. This includes the text properties of strings in @var{symbol}'s value, as well as all @code{:eval} and @code{:propertize} forms in it. (The reason for this is security: non-risky variables could be set automatically from file variables without prompting the user.) @item (@var{string} @var{rest}@dots{}) @itemx (@var{list} @var{rest}@dots{}) A list whose first element is a string or list means to process all the elements recursively and concatenate the results. This is the most common form of mode line construct. @item (:eval @var{form}) A list whose first element is the symbol @code{:eval} says to evaluate @var{form}, and use the result as a string to display. Make sure this evaluation cannot load any files, as doing so could cause infinite recursion. @item (:propertize @var{elt} @var{props}@dots{}) A list whose first element is the symbol @code{:propertize} says to process the mode line construct @var{elt} recursively, then add the text properties specified by @var{props} to the result. The argument @var{props} should consist of zero or more pairs @var{text-property} @var{value}. @item (@var{symbol} @var{then} @var{else}) A list whose first element is a symbol that is not a keyword specifies a conditional. Its meaning depends on the value of @var{symbol}. If @var{symbol} has a non-@code{nil} value, the second element, @var{then}, is processed recursively as a mode line element. Otherwise, the third element, @var{else}, is processed recursively. You may omit @var{else}; then the mode line element displays nothing if the value of @var{symbol} is @code{nil} or void. @item (@var{width} @var{rest}@dots{}) A list whose first element is an integer specifies truncation or padding of the results of @var{rest}. The remaining elements @var{rest} are processed recursively as mode line constructs and concatenated together. When @var{width} is positive, the result is space filled on the right if its width is less than @var{width}. When @var{width} is negative, the result is truncated on the right to @minus{}@var{width} columns if its width exceeds @minus{}@var{width}. For example, the usual way to show what percentage of a buffer is above the top of the window is to use a list like this: @code{(-3 "%p")}. @end table @node Mode Line Top @subsection The Top Level of Mode Line Control The variable in overall control of the mode line is @code{mode-line-format}. @defopt mode-line-format The value of this variable is a mode line construct that controls the contents of the mode-line. It is always buffer-local in all buffers. If you set this variable to @code{nil} in a buffer, that buffer does not have a mode line. (A window that is just one line tall also does not display a mode line.) @end defopt The default value of @code{mode-line-format} is designed to use the values of other variables such as @code{mode-line-position} and @code{mode-line-modes} (which in turn incorporates the values of the variables @code{mode-name} and @code{minor-mode-alist}). Very few modes need to alter @code{mode-line-format} itself. For most purposes, it is sufficient to alter some of the variables that @code{mode-line-format} either directly or indirectly refers to. If you do alter @code{mode-line-format} itself, the new value should use the same variables that appear in the default value (@pxref{Mode Line Variables}), rather than duplicating their contents or displaying the information in another fashion. This way, customizations made by the user or by Lisp programs (such as @code{display-time} and major modes) via changes to those variables remain effective. Here is a hypothetical example of a @code{mode-line-format} that might be useful for Shell mode (in reality, Shell mode does not set @code{mode-line-format}): @example @group (setq mode-line-format (list "-" 'mode-line-mule-info 'mode-line-modified 'mode-line-frame-identification "%b--" @end group @group ;; @r{Note that this is evaluated while making the list.} ;; @r{It makes a mode line construct which is just a string.} (getenv "HOST") @end group ":" 'default-directory " " 'global-mode-string " %[(" '(:eval (mode-line-mode-name)) 'mode-line-process 'minor-mode-alist "%n" ")%]--" @group '(which-func-mode ("" which-func-format "--")) '(line-number-mode "L%l--") '(column-number-mode "C%c--") '(-3 "%p"))) @end group @end example @noindent (The variables @code{line-number-mode}, @code{column-number-mode} and @code{which-func-mode} enable particular minor modes; as usual, these variable names are also the minor mode command names.) @node Mode Line Variables @subsection Variables Used in the Mode Line This section describes variables incorporated by the standard value of @code{mode-line-format} into the text of the mode line. There is nothing inherently special about these variables; any other variables could have the same effects on the mode line if the value of @code{mode-line-format} is changed to use them. However, various parts of Emacs set these variables on the understanding that they will control parts of the mode line; therefore, practically speaking, it is essential for the mode line to use them. @defvar mode-line-mule-info This variable holds the value of the mode line construct that displays information about the language environment, buffer coding system, and current input method. @xref{Non-ASCII Characters}. @end defvar @defvar mode-line-modified This variable holds the value of the mode line construct that displays whether the current buffer is modified. Its default value displays @samp{**} if the buffer is modified, @samp{--} if the buffer is not modified, @samp{%%} if the buffer is read only, and @samp{%*} if the buffer is read only and modified. Changing this variable does not force an update of the mode line. @end defvar @defvar mode-line-frame-identification This variable identifies the current frame. Its default value displays @code{" "} if you are using a window system which can show multiple frames, or @code{"-%F "} on an ordinary terminal which shows only one frame at a time. @end defvar @defvar mode-line-buffer-identification This variable identifies the buffer being displayed in the window. Its default value displays the buffer name, padded with spaces to at least 12 columns. @end defvar @defopt mode-line-position This variable indicates the position in the buffer. Its default value displays the buffer percentage and, optionally, the buffer size, the line number and the column number. @end defopt @defvar vc-mode The variable @code{vc-mode}, buffer-local in each buffer, records whether the buffer's visited file is maintained with version control, and, if so, which kind. Its value is a string that appears in the mode line, or @code{nil} for no version control. @end defvar @defopt mode-line-modes This variable displays the buffer's major and minor modes. Its default value also displays the recursive editing level, information on the process status, and whether narrowing is in effect. @end defopt @defopt mode-line-remote This variable is used to show whether @code{default-directory} for the current buffer is remote. @end defopt @defopt mode-line-client This variable is used to identify @code{emacsclient} frames. @end defopt The following three variables are used in @code{mode-line-modes}: @defvar mode-name This buffer-local variable holds the ``pretty'' name of the current buffer's major mode. Each major mode should set this variable so that the mode name will appear in the mode line. The value does not have to be a string, but can use any of the data types valid in a mode-line construct (@pxref{Mode Line Data}). To compute the string that will identify the mode name in the mode line, use @code{format-mode-line} (@pxref{Emulating Mode Line}). @end defvar @defvar mode-line-process This buffer-local variable contains the mode line information on process status in modes used for communicating with subprocesses. It is displayed immediately following the major mode name, with no intervening space. For example, its value in the @file{*shell*} buffer is @code{(":%s")}, which allows the shell to display its status along with the major mode as: @samp{(Shell:run)}. Normally this variable is @code{nil}. @end defvar @defvar minor-mode-alist @anchor{Definition of minor-mode-alist} This variable holds an association list whose elements specify how the mode line should indicate that a minor mode is active. Each element of the @code{minor-mode-alist} should be a two-element list: @example (@var{minor-mode-variable} @var{mode-line-string}) @end example More generally, @var{mode-line-string} can be any mode line construct. It appears in the mode line when the value of @var{minor-mode-variable} is non-@code{nil}, and not otherwise. These strings should begin with spaces so that they don't run together. Conventionally, the @var{minor-mode-variable} for a specific mode is set to a non-@code{nil} value when that minor mode is activated. @code{minor-mode-alist} itself is not buffer-local. Each variable mentioned in the alist should be buffer-local if its minor mode can be enabled separately in each buffer. @end defvar @defvar global-mode-string This variable holds a mode line construct that, by default, appears in the mode line just after the @code{which-func-mode} minor mode if set, else after @code{mode-line-modes}. The command @code{display-time} sets @code{global-mode-string} to refer to the variable @code{display-time-string}, which holds a string containing the time and load information. The @samp{%M} construct substitutes the value of @code{global-mode-string}, but that is obsolete, since the variable is included in the mode line from @code{mode-line-format}. @end defvar Here is a simplified version of the default value of @code{mode-line-format}. The real default value also specifies addition of text properties. @example @group ("-" mode-line-mule-info mode-line-modified mode-line-frame-identification mode-line-buffer-identification @end group " " mode-line-position (vc-mode vc-mode) " " @group mode-line-modes (which-func-mode ("" which-func-format "--")) (global-mode-string ("--" global-mode-string)) "-%-") @end group @end example @node %-Constructs @subsection @code{%}-Constructs in the Mode Line Strings used as mode line constructs can use certain @code{%}-constructs to substitute various kinds of data. Here is a list of the defined @code{%}-constructs, and what they mean. In any construct except @samp{%%}, you can add a decimal integer after the @samp{%} to specify a minimum field width. If the width is less, the field is padded with spaces to the right. @table @code @item %b The current buffer name, obtained with the @code{buffer-name} function. @xref{Buffer Names}. @item %c The current column number of point. @item %e When Emacs is nearly out of memory for Lisp objects, a brief message saying so. Otherwise, this is empty. @item %f The visited file name, obtained with the @code{buffer-file-name} function. @xref{Buffer File Name}. @item %F The title (only on a window system) or the name of the selected frame. @xref{Basic Parameters}. @item %i The size of the accessible part of the current buffer; basically @code{(- (point-max) (point-min))}. @item %I Like @samp{%i}, but the size is printed in a more readable way by using @samp{k} for 10^3, @samp{M} for 10^6, @samp{G} for 10^9, etc., to abbreviate. @item %l The current line number of point, counting within the accessible portion of the buffer. @item %n @samp{Narrow} when narrowing is in effect; nothing otherwise (see @code{narrow-to-region} in @ref{Narrowing}). @item %p The percentage of the buffer text above the @strong{top} of window, or @samp{Top}, @samp{Bottom} or @samp{All}. Note that the default mode line construct truncates this to three characters. @item %P The percentage of the buffer text that is above the @strong{bottom} of the window (which includes the text visible in the window, as well as the text above the top), plus @samp{Top} if the top of the buffer is visible on screen; or @samp{Bottom} or @samp{All}. @item %s The status of the subprocess belonging to the current buffer, obtained with @code{process-status}. @xref{Process Information}. @item %t Whether the visited file is a text file or a binary file. This is a meaningful distinction only on certain operating systems (@pxref{MS-DOS File Types}). @item %z The mnemonics of keyboard, terminal, and buffer coding systems. @item %Z Like @samp{%z}, but including the end-of-line format. @item %* @samp{%} if the buffer is read only (see @code{buffer-read-only}); @* @samp{*} if the buffer is modified (see @code{buffer-modified-p}); @* @samp{-} otherwise. @xref{Buffer Modification}. @item %+ @samp{*} if the buffer is modified (see @code{buffer-modified-p}); @* @samp{%} if the buffer is read only (see @code{buffer-read-only}); @* @samp{-} otherwise. This differs from @samp{%*} only for a modified read-only buffer. @xref{Buffer Modification}. @item %& @samp{*} if the buffer is modified, and @samp{-} otherwise. @item %[ An indication of the depth of recursive editing levels (not counting minibuffer levels): one @samp{[} for each editing level. @xref{Recursive Editing}. @item %] One @samp{]} for each recursive editing level (not counting minibuffer levels). @item %- Dashes sufficient to fill the remainder of the mode line. @item %% The character @samp{%}---this is how to include a literal @samp{%} in a string in which @code{%}-constructs are allowed. @end table The following two @code{%}-constructs are still supported, but they are obsolete, since you can get the same results with the variables @code{mode-name} and @code{global-mode-string}. @table @code @item %m The value of @code{mode-name}. @item %M The value of @code{global-mode-string}. @end table @node Properties in Mode @subsection Properties in the Mode Line @cindex text properties in the mode line Certain text properties are meaningful in the mode line. The @code{face} property affects the appearance of text; the @code{help-echo} property associates help strings with the text, and @code{local-map} can make the text mouse-sensitive. There are four ways to specify text properties for text in the mode line: @enumerate @item Put a string with a text property directly into the mode line data structure. @item Put a text property on a mode line %-construct such as @samp{%12b}; then the expansion of the %-construct will have that same text property. @item Use a @code{(:propertize @var{elt} @var{props}@dots{})} construct to give @var{elt} a text property specified by @var{props}. @item Use a list containing @code{:eval @var{form}} in the mode line data structure, and make @var{form} evaluate to a string that has a text property. @end enumerate You can use the @code{local-map} property to specify a keymap. This keymap only takes real effect for mouse clicks; binding character keys and function keys to it has no effect, since it is impossible to move point into the mode line. When the mode line refers to a variable which does not have a non-@code{nil} @code{risky-local-variable} property, any text properties given or specified within that variable's values are ignored. This is because such properties could otherwise specify functions to be called, and those functions could come from file local variables. @node Header Lines @subsection Window Header Lines @cindex header line (of a window) @cindex window header line A window can have a @dfn{header line} at the top, just as it can have a mode line at the bottom. The header line feature works just like the mode line feature, except that it's controlled by @code{header-line-format}: @defvar header-line-format This variable, local in every buffer, specifies how to display the header line, for windows displaying the buffer. The format of the value is the same as for @code{mode-line-format} (@pxref{Mode Line Data}). It is normally @code{nil}, so that ordinary buffers have no header line. @end defvar A window that is just one line tall never displays a header line. A window that is two lines tall cannot display both a mode line and a header line at once; if it has a mode line, then it does not display a header line. @node Emulating Mode Line @subsection Emulating Mode Line Formatting You can use the function @code{format-mode-line} to compute the text that would appear in a mode line or header line based on a certain mode line construct. @defun format-mode-line format &optional face window buffer This function formats a line of text according to @var{format} as if it were generating the mode line for @var{window}, but it also returns the text as a string. The argument @var{window} defaults to the selected window. If @var{buffer} is non-@code{nil}, all the information used is taken from @var{buffer}; by default, it comes from @var{window}'s buffer. The value string normally has text properties that correspond to the faces, keymaps, etc., that the mode line would have. Any character for which no @code{face} property is specified by @var{format} gets a default value determined by @var{face}. If @var{face} is @code{t}, that stands for either @code{mode-line} if @var{window} is selected, otherwise @code{mode-line-inactive}. If @var{face} is @code{nil} or omitted, that stands for the default face. If @var{face} is an integer, the value returned by this function will have no text properties. You can also specify other valid faces as the value of @var{face}. If specified, that face provides the @code{face} property for characters whose face is not specified by @var{format}. Note that using @code{mode-line}, @code{mode-line-inactive}, or @code{header-line} as @var{face} will actually redisplay the mode line or the header line, respectively, using the current definitions of the corresponding face, in addition to returning the formatted string. (Other faces do not cause redisplay.) For example, @code{(format-mode-line header-line-format)} returns the text that would appear in the selected window's header line (@code{""} if it has no header line). @code{(format-mode-line header-line-format 'header-line)} returns the same text, with each character carrying the face that it will have in the header line itself, and also redraws the header line. @end defun @node Imenu @section Imenu @cindex Imenu @dfn{Imenu} is a feature that lets users select a definition or section in the buffer, from a menu which lists all of them, to go directly to that location in the buffer. Imenu works by constructing a buffer index which lists the names and buffer positions of the definitions, or other named portions of the buffer; then the user can choose one of them and move point to it. Major modes can add a menu bar item to use Imenu using @code{imenu-add-to-menubar}. @defun imenu-add-to-menubar name This function defines a local menu bar item named @var{name} to run Imenu. @end defun The user-level commands for using Imenu are described in the Emacs Manual (@pxref{Imenu,, Imenu, emacs, the Emacs Manual}). This section explains how to customize Imenu's method of finding definitions or buffer portions for a particular major mode. The usual and simplest way is to set the variable @code{imenu-generic-expression}: @defvar imenu-generic-expression This variable, if non-@code{nil}, is a list that specifies regular expressions for finding definitions for Imenu. Simple elements of @code{imenu-generic-expression} look like this: @example (@var{menu-title} @var{regexp} @var{index}) @end example Here, if @var{menu-title} is non-@code{nil}, it says that the matches for this element should go in a submenu of the buffer index; @var{menu-title} itself specifies the name for the submenu. If @var{menu-title} is @code{nil}, the matches for this element go directly in the top level of the buffer index. The second item in the list, @var{regexp}, is a regular expression (@pxref{Regular Expressions}); anything in the buffer that it matches is considered a definition, something to mention in the buffer index. The third item, @var{index}, is a non-negative integer that indicates which subexpression in @var{regexp} matches the definition's name. An element can also look like this: @example (@var{menu-title} @var{regexp} @var{index} @var{function} @var{arguments}@dots{}) @end example Each match for this element creates an index item, and when the index item is selected by the user, it calls @var{function} with arguments consisting of the item name, the buffer position, and @var{arguments}. For Emacs Lisp mode, @code{imenu-generic-expression} could look like this: @c should probably use imenu-syntax-alist and \\sw rather than [-A-Za-z0-9+] @example @group ((nil "^\\s-*(def\\(un\\|subst\\|macro\\|advice\\)\ \\s-+\\([-A-Za-z0-9+]+\\)" 2) @end group @group ("*Vars*" "^\\s-*(def\\(var\\|const\\)\ \\s-+\\([-A-Za-z0-9+]+\\)" 2) @end group @group ("*Types*" "^\\s-*\ (def\\(type\\|struct\\|class\\|ine-condition\\)\ \\s-+\\([-A-Za-z0-9+]+\\)" 2)) @end group @end example Setting this variable makes it buffer-local in the current buffer. @end defvar @defvar imenu-case-fold-search This variable controls whether matching against the regular expressions in the value of @code{imenu-generic-expression} is case-sensitive: @code{t}, the default, means matching should ignore case. Setting this variable makes it buffer-local in the current buffer. @end defvar @defvar imenu-syntax-alist This variable is an alist of syntax table modifiers to use while processing @code{imenu-generic-expression}, to override the syntax table of the current buffer. Each element should have this form: @example (@var{characters} . @var{syntax-description}) @end example The @sc{car}, @var{characters}, can be either a character or a string. The element says to give that character or characters the syntax specified by @var{syntax-description}, which is passed to @code{modify-syntax-entry} (@pxref{Syntax Table Functions}). This feature is typically used to give word syntax to characters which normally have symbol syntax, and thus to simplify @code{imenu-generic-expression} and speed up matching. For example, Fortran mode uses it this way: @example (setq imenu-syntax-alist '(("_$" . "w"))) @end example The @code{imenu-generic-expression} regular expressions can then use @samp{\\sw+} instead of @samp{\\(\\sw\\|\\s_\\)+}. Note that this technique may be inconvenient when the mode needs to limit the initial character of a name to a smaller set of characters than are allowed in the rest of a name. Setting this variable makes it buffer-local in the current buffer. @end defvar Another way to customize Imenu for a major mode is to set the variables @code{imenu-prev-index-position-function} and @code{imenu-extract-index-name-function}: @defvar imenu-prev-index-position-function If this variable is non-@code{nil}, its value should be a function that finds the next ``definition'' to put in the buffer index, scanning backward in the buffer from point. It should return @code{nil} if it doesn't find another ``definition'' before point. Otherwise it should leave point at the place it finds a ``definition'' and return any non-@code{nil} value. Setting this variable makes it buffer-local in the current buffer. @end defvar @defvar imenu-extract-index-name-function If this variable is non-@code{nil}, its value should be a function to return the name for a definition, assuming point is in that definition as the @code{imenu-prev-index-position-function} function would leave it. Setting this variable makes it buffer-local in the current buffer. @end defvar The last way to customize Imenu for a major mode is to set the variable @code{imenu-create-index-function}: @defvar imenu-create-index-function This variable specifies the function to use for creating a buffer index. The function should take no arguments, and return an index alist for the current buffer. It is called within @code{save-excursion}, so where it leaves point makes no difference. The index alist can have three types of elements. Simple elements look like this: @example (@var{index-name} . @var{index-position}) @end example Selecting a simple element has the effect of moving to position @var{index-position} in the buffer. Special elements look like this: @example (@var{index-name} @var{index-position} @var{function} @var{arguments}@dots{}) @end example Selecting a special element performs: @example (funcall @var{function} @var{index-name} @var{index-position} @var{arguments}@dots{}) @end example A nested sub-alist element looks like this: @example (@var{menu-title} @var{sub-alist}) @end example It creates the submenu @var{menu-title} specified by @var{sub-alist}. The default value of @code{imenu-create-index-function} is @code{imenu-default-create-index-function}. This function calls the value of @code{imenu-prev-index-position-function} and the value of @code{imenu-extract-index-name-function} to produce the index alist. However, if either of these two variables is @code{nil}, the default function uses @code{imenu-generic-expression} instead. Setting this variable makes it buffer-local in the current buffer. @end defvar @node Font Lock Mode @section Font Lock Mode @cindex Font Lock mode @dfn{Font Lock mode} is a buffer-local minor mode that automatically attaches @code{face} properties to certain parts of the buffer based on their syntactic role. How it parses the buffer depends on the major mode; most major modes define syntactic criteria for which faces to use in which contexts. This section explains how to customize Font Lock for a particular major mode. Font Lock mode finds text to highlight in two ways: through syntactic parsing based on the syntax table, and through searching (usually for regular expressions). Syntactic fontification happens first; it finds comments and string constants and highlights them. Search-based fontification happens second. @menu * Font Lock Basics:: Overview of customizing Font Lock. * Search-based Fontification:: Fontification based on regexps. * Customizing Keywords:: Customizing search-based fontification. * Other Font Lock Variables:: Additional customization facilities. * Levels of Font Lock:: Each mode can define alternative levels so that the user can select more or less. * Precalculated Fontification:: How Lisp programs that produce the buffer contents can also specify how to fontify it. * Faces for Font Lock:: Special faces specifically for Font Lock. * Syntactic Font Lock:: Fontification based on syntax tables. * Multiline Font Lock:: How to coerce Font Lock into properly highlighting multiline constructs. @end menu @node Font Lock Basics @subsection Font Lock Basics There are several variables that control how Font Lock mode highlights text. But major modes should not set any of these variables directly. Instead, they should set @code{font-lock-defaults} as a buffer-local variable. The value assigned to this variable is used, if and when Font Lock mode is enabled, to set all the other variables. @defvar font-lock-defaults This variable is set by major modes to specify how to fontify text in that mode. It automatically becomes buffer-local when set. If its value is @code{nil}, Font Lock mode does no highlighting, and you can use the @samp{Faces} menu (under @samp{Edit} and then @samp{Text Properties} in the menu bar) to assign faces explicitly to text in the buffer. If non-@code{nil}, the value should look like this: @example (@var{keywords} [@var{keywords-only} [@var{case-fold} [@var{syntax-alist} [@var{syntax-begin} @var{other-vars}@dots{}]]]]) @end example The first element, @var{keywords}, indirectly specifies the value of @code{font-lock-keywords} which directs search-based fontification. It can be a symbol, a variable or a function whose value is the list to use for @code{font-lock-keywords}. It can also be a list of several such symbols, one for each possible level of fontification. The first symbol specifies the @samp{mode default} level of fontification, the next symbol level 1 fontification, the next level 2, and so on. The @samp{mode default} level is normally the same as level 1. It is used when @code{font-lock-maximum-decoration} has a @code{nil} value. @xref{Levels of Font Lock}. The second element, @var{keywords-only}, specifies the value of the variable @code{font-lock-keywords-only}. If this is omitted or @code{nil}, syntactic fontification (of strings and comments) is also performed. If this is non-@code{nil}, syntactic fontification is not performed. @xref{Syntactic Font Lock}. The third element, @var{case-fold}, specifies the value of @code{font-lock-keywords-case-fold-search}. If it is non-@code{nil}, Font Lock mode ignores case during search-based fontification. If the fourth element, @var{syntax-alist}, is non-@code{nil}, it should be a list of cons cells of the form @code{(@var{char-or-string} . @var{string})}. These are used to set up a syntax table for syntactic fontification; the resulting syntax table is stored in @code{font-lock-syntax-table}. If @var{syntax-alist} is omitted or @code{nil}, syntactic fontification uses the syntax table returned by the @code{syntax-table} function. @xref{Syntax Table Functions}. The fifth element, @var{syntax-begin}, specifies the value of @code{font-lock-beginning-of-syntax-function}. We recommend setting this variable to @code{nil} and using @code{syntax-begin-function} instead. All the remaining elements (if any) are collectively called @var{other-vars}. Each of these elements should have the form @code{(@var{variable} . @var{value})}---which means, make @var{variable} buffer-local and then set it to @var{value}. You can use these @var{other-vars} to set other variables that affect fontification, aside from those you can control with the first five elements. @xref{Other Font Lock Variables}. @end defvar If your mode fontifies text explicitly by adding @code{font-lock-face} properties, it can specify @code{(nil t)} for @code{font-lock-defaults} to turn off all automatic fontification. However, this is not required; it is possible to fontify some things using @code{font-lock-face} properties and set up automatic fontification for other parts of the text. @node Search-based Fontification @subsection Search-based Fontification The variable which directly controls search-based fontification is @code{font-lock-keywords}, which is typically specified via the @var{keywords} element in @code{font-lock-defaults}. @defvar font-lock-keywords The value of this variable is a list of the keywords to highlight. Lisp programs should not set this variable directly. Normally, the value is automatically set by Font Lock mode, using the @var{keywords} element in @code{font-lock-defaults}. The value can also be altered using the functions @code{font-lock-add-keywords} and @code{font-lock-remove-keywords} (@pxref{Customizing Keywords}). @end defvar Each element of @code{font-lock-keywords} specifies how to find certain cases of text, and how to highlight those cases. Font Lock mode processes the elements of @code{font-lock-keywords} one by one, and for each element, it finds and handles all matches. Ordinarily, once part of the text has been fontified already, this cannot be overridden by a subsequent match in the same text; but you can specify different behavior using the @var{override} element of a @var{subexp-highlighter}. Each element of @code{font-lock-keywords} should have one of these forms: @table @code @item @var{regexp} Highlight all matches for @var{regexp} using @code{font-lock-keyword-face}. For example, @example ;; @r{Highlight occurrences of the word @samp{foo}} ;; @r{using @code{font-lock-keyword-face}.} "\\" @end example Be careful when composing these regular expressions; a poorly written pattern can dramatically slow things down! The function @code{regexp-opt} (@pxref{Regexp Functions}) is useful for calculating optimal regular expressions to match several keywords. @item @var{function} Find text by calling @var{function}, and highlight the matches it finds using @code{font-lock-keyword-face}. When @var{function} is called, it receives one argument, the limit of the search; it should begin searching at point, and not search beyond the limit. It should return non-@code{nil} if it succeeds, and set the match data to describe the match that was found. Returning @code{nil} indicates failure of the search. Fontification will call @var{function} repeatedly with the same limit, and with point where the previous invocation left it, until @var{function} fails. On failure, @var{function} need not reset point in any particular way. @item (@var{matcher} . @var{subexp}) In this kind of element, @var{matcher} is either a regular expression or a function, as described above. The @sc{cdr}, @var{subexp}, specifies which subexpression of @var{matcher} should be highlighted (instead of the entire text that @var{matcher} matched). @example ;; @r{Highlight the @samp{bar} in each occurrence of @samp{fubar},} ;; @r{using @code{font-lock-keyword-face}.} ("fu\\(bar\\)" . 1) @end example If you use @code{regexp-opt} to produce the regular expression @var{matcher}, you can use @code{regexp-opt-depth} (@pxref{Regexp Functions}) to calculate the value for @var{subexp}. @item (@var{matcher} . @var{facespec}) In this kind of element, @var{facespec} is an expression whose value specifies the face to use for highlighting. In the simplest case, @var{facespec} is a Lisp variable (a symbol) whose value is a face name. @example ;; @r{Highlight occurrences of @samp{fubar},} ;; @r{using the face which is the value of @code{fubar-face}.} ("fubar" . fubar-face) @end example However, @var{facespec} can also evaluate to a list of this form: @example (face @var{face} @var{prop1} @var{val1} @var{prop2} @var{val2}@dots{}) @end example @noindent to specify the face @var{face} and various additional text properties to put on the text that matches. If you do this, be sure to add the other text property names that you set in this way to the value of @code{font-lock-extra-managed-props} so that the properties will also be cleared out when they are no longer appropriate. Alternatively, you can set the variable @code{font-lock-unfontify-region-function} to a function that clears these properties. @xref{Other Font Lock Variables}. @item (@var{matcher} . @var{subexp-highlighter}) In this kind of element, @var{subexp-highlighter} is a list which specifies how to highlight matches found by @var{matcher}. It has the form: @example (@var{subexp} @var{facespec} [@var{override} [@var{laxmatch}]]) @end example The @sc{car}, @var{subexp}, is an integer specifying which subexpression of the match to fontify (0 means the entire matching text). The second subelement, @var{facespec}, is an expression whose value specifies the face, as described above. The last two values in @var{subexp-highlighter}, @var{override} and @var{laxmatch}, are optional flags. If @var{override} is @code{t}, this element can override existing fontification made by previous elements of @code{font-lock-keywords}. If it is @code{keep}, then each character is fontified if it has not been fontified already by some other element. If it is @code{prepend}, the face specified by @var{facespec} is added to the beginning of the @code{font-lock-face} property. If it is @code{append}, the face is added to the end of the @code{font-lock-face} property. If @var{laxmatch} is non-@code{nil}, it means there should be no error if there is no subexpression numbered @var{subexp} in @var{matcher}. Obviously, fontification of the subexpression numbered @var{subexp} will not occur. However, fontification of other subexpressions (and other regexps) will continue. If @var{laxmatch} is @code{nil}, and the specified subexpression is missing, then an error is signaled which terminates search-based fontification. Here are some examples of elements of this kind, and what they do: @smallexample ;; @r{Highlight occurrences of either @samp{foo} or @samp{bar}, using} ;; @r{@code{foo-bar-face}, even if they have already been highlighted.} ;; @r{@code{foo-bar-face} should be a variable whose value is a face.} ("foo\\|bar" 0 foo-bar-face t) ;; @r{Highlight the first subexpression within each occurrence} ;; @r{that the function @code{fubar-match} finds,} ;; @r{using the face which is the value of @code{fubar-face}.} (fubar-match 1 fubar-face) @end smallexample @item (@var{matcher} . @var{anchored-highlighter}) In this kind of element, @var{anchored-highlighter} specifies how to highlight text that follows a match found by @var{matcher}. So a match found by @var{matcher} acts as the anchor for further searches specified by @var{anchored-highlighter}. @var{anchored-highlighter} is a list of the following form: @example (@var{anchored-matcher} @var{pre-form} @var{post-form} @var{subexp-highlighters}@dots{}) @end example Here, @var{anchored-matcher}, like @var{matcher}, is either a regular expression or a function. After a match of @var{matcher} is found, point is at the end of the match. Now, Font Lock evaluates the form @var{pre-form}. Then it searches for matches of @var{anchored-matcher} and uses @var{subexp-highlighters} to highlight these. A @var{subexp-highlighter} is as described above. Finally, Font Lock evaluates @var{post-form}. The forms @var{pre-form} and @var{post-form} can be used to initialize before, and cleanup after, @var{anchored-matcher} is used. Typically, @var{pre-form} is used to move point to some position relative to the match of @var{matcher}, before starting with @var{anchored-matcher}. @var{post-form} might be used to move back, before resuming with @var{matcher}. After Font Lock evaluates @var{pre-form}, it does not search for @var{anchored-matcher} beyond the end of the line. However, if @var{pre-form} returns a buffer position that is greater than the position of point after @var{pre-form} is evaluated, then the position returned by @var{pre-form} is used as the limit of the search instead. It is generally a bad idea to return a position greater than the end of the line; in other words, the @var{anchored-matcher} search should not span lines. For example, @smallexample ;; @r{Highlight occurrences of the word @samp{item} following} ;; @r{an occurrence of the word @samp{anchor} (on the same line)} ;; @r{in the value of @code{item-face}.} ("\\" "\\" nil nil (0 item-face)) @end smallexample Here, @var{pre-form} and @var{post-form} are @code{nil}. Therefore searching for @samp{item} starts at the end of the match of @samp{anchor}, and searching for subsequent instances of @samp{anchor} resumes from where searching for @samp{item} concluded. @item (@var{matcher} @var{highlighters}@dots{}) This sort of element specifies several @var{highlighter} lists for a single @var{matcher}. A @var{highlighter} list can be of the type @var{subexp-highlighter} or @var{anchored-highlighter} as described above. For example, @smallexample ;; @r{Highlight occurrences of the word @samp{anchor} in the value} ;; @r{of @code{anchor-face}, and subsequent occurrences of the word} ;; @r{@samp{item} (on the same line) in the value of @code{item-face}.} ("\\" (0 anchor-face) ("\\" nil nil (0 item-face))) @end smallexample @item (eval . @var{form}) Here @var{form} is an expression to be evaluated the first time this value of @code{font-lock-keywords} is used in a buffer. Its value should have one of the forms described in this table. @end table @strong{Warning:} Do not design an element of @code{font-lock-keywords} to match text which spans lines; this does not work reliably. For details, see @xref{Multiline Font Lock}. You can use @var{case-fold} in @code{font-lock-defaults} to specify the value of @code{font-lock-keywords-case-fold-search} which says whether search-based fontification should be case-insensitive. @defvar font-lock-keywords-case-fold-search Non-@code{nil} means that regular expression matching for the sake of @code{font-lock-keywords} should be case-insensitive. @end defvar @node Customizing Keywords @subsection Customizing Search-Based Fontification You can use @code{font-lock-add-keywords} to add additional search-based fontification rules to a major mode, and @code{font-lock-remove-keywords} to remove rules. @defun font-lock-add-keywords mode keywords &optional how This function adds highlighting @var{keywords}, for the current buffer or for major mode @var{mode}. The argument @var{keywords} should be a list with the same format as the variable @code{font-lock-keywords}. If @var{mode} is a symbol which is a major mode command name, such as @code{c-mode}, the effect is that enabling Font Lock mode in @var{mode} will add @var{keywords} to @code{font-lock-keywords}. Calling with a non-@code{nil} value of @var{mode} is correct only in your @file{~/.emacs} file. If @var{mode} is @code{nil}, this function adds @var{keywords} to @code{font-lock-keywords} in the current buffer. This way of calling @code{font-lock-add-keywords} is usually used in mode hook functions. By default, @var{keywords} are added at the beginning of @code{font-lock-keywords}. If the optional argument @var{how} is @code{set}, they are used to replace the value of @code{font-lock-keywords}. If @var{how} is any other non-@code{nil} value, they are added at the end of @code{font-lock-keywords}. Some modes provide specialized support you can use in additional highlighting patterns. See the variables @code{c-font-lock-extra-types}, @code{c++-font-lock-extra-types}, and @code{java-font-lock-extra-types}, for example. @strong{Warning:} Major mode commands must not call @code{font-lock-add-keywords} under any circumstances, either directly or indirectly, except through their mode hooks. (Doing so would lead to incorrect behavior for some minor modes.) They should set up their rules for search-based fontification by setting @code{font-lock-keywords}. @end defun @defun font-lock-remove-keywords mode keywords This function removes @var{keywords} from @code{font-lock-keywords} for the current buffer or for major mode @var{mode}. As in @code{font-lock-add-keywords}, @var{mode} should be a major mode command name or @code{nil}. All the caveats and requirements for @code{font-lock-add-keywords} apply here too. @end defun For example, the following code adds two fontification patterns for C mode: one to fontify the word @samp{FIXME}, even in comments, and another to fontify the words @samp{and}, @samp{or} and @samp{not} as keywords. @smallexample (font-lock-add-keywords 'c-mode '(("\\<\\(FIXME\\):" 1 font-lock-warning-face prepend) ("\\<\\(and\\|or\\|not\\)\\>" . font-lock-keyword-face))) @end smallexample @noindent This example affects only C mode proper. To add the same patterns to C mode @emph{and} all modes derived from it, do this instead: @smallexample (add-hook 'c-mode-hook (lambda () (font-lock-add-keywords nil '(("\\<\\(FIXME\\):" 1 font-lock-warning-face prepend) ("\\<\\(and\\|or\\|not\\)\\>" . font-lock-keyword-face))))) @end smallexample @node Other Font Lock Variables @subsection Other Font Lock Variables This section describes additional variables that a major mode can set by means of @var{other-vars} in @code{font-lock-defaults} (@pxref{Font Lock Basics}). @defvar font-lock-mark-block-function If this variable is non-@code{nil}, it should be a function that is called with no arguments, to choose an enclosing range of text for refontification for the command @kbd{M-o M-o} (@code{font-lock-fontify-block}). The function should report its choice by placing the region around it. A good choice is a range of text large enough to give proper results, but not too large so that refontification becomes slow. Typical values are @code{mark-defun} for programming modes or @code{mark-paragraph} for textual modes. @end defvar @defvar font-lock-extra-managed-props This variable specifies additional properties (other than @code{font-lock-face}) that are being managed by Font Lock mode. It is used by @code{font-lock-default-unfontify-region}, which normally only manages the @code{font-lock-face} property. If you want Font Lock to manage other properties as well, you must specify them in a @var{facespec} in @code{font-lock-keywords} as well as add them to this list. @xref{Search-based Fontification}. @end defvar @defvar font-lock-fontify-buffer-function Function to use for fontifying the buffer. The default value is @code{font-lock-default-fontify-buffer}. @end defvar @defvar font-lock-unfontify-buffer-function Function to use for unfontifying the buffer. This is used when turning off Font Lock mode. The default value is @code{font-lock-default-unfontify-buffer}. @end defvar @defvar font-lock-fontify-region-function Function to use for fontifying a region. It should take two arguments, the beginning and end of the region, and an optional third argument @var{verbose}. If @var{verbose} is non-@code{nil}, the function should print status messages. The default value is @code{font-lock-default-fontify-region}. @end defvar @defvar font-lock-unfontify-region-function Function to use for unfontifying a region. It should take two arguments, the beginning and end of the region. The default value is @code{font-lock-default-unfontify-region}. @end defvar @defun jit-lock-register function &optional contextual This function tells Font Lock mode to run the Lisp function @var{function} any time it has to fontify or refontify part of the current buffer. It calls @var{function} before calling the default fontification functions, and gives it two arguments, @var{start} and @var{end}, which specify the region to be fontified or refontified. The optional argument @var{contextual}, if non-@code{nil}, forces Font Lock mode to always refontify a syntactically relevant part of the buffer, and not just the modified lines. This argument can usually be omitted. @end defun @defun jit-lock-unregister function If @var{function} was previously registered as a fontification function using @code{jit-lock-register}, this function unregisters it. @end defun @node Levels of Font Lock @subsection Levels of Font Lock Some major modes offer three different levels of fontification. You can define multiple levels by using a list of symbols for @var{keywords} in @code{font-lock-defaults}. Each symbol specifies one level of fontification; it is up to the user to choose one of these levels, normally by setting @code{font-lock-maximum-decoration} (@pxref{Font Lock,,, emacs, the GNU Emacs Manual}). The chosen level's symbol value is used to initialize @code{font-lock-keywords}. Here are the conventions for how to define the levels of fontification: @itemize @bullet @item Level 1: highlight function declarations, file directives (such as include or import directives), strings and comments. The idea is speed, so only the most important and top-level components are fontified. @item Level 2: in addition to level 1, highlight all language keywords, including type names that act like keywords, as well as named constant values. The idea is that all keywords (either syntactic or semantic) should be fontified appropriately. @item Level 3: in addition to level 2, highlight the symbols being defined in function and variable declarations, and all builtin function names, wherever they appear. @end itemize @node Precalculated Fontification @subsection Precalculated Fontification Some major modes such as @code{list-buffers} and @code{occur} construct the buffer text programmatically. The easiest way for them to support Font Lock mode is to specify the faces of text when they insert the text in the buffer. The way to do this is to specify the faces in the text with the special text property @code{font-lock-face} (@pxref{Special Properties}). When Font Lock mode is enabled, this property controls the display, just like the @code{face} property. When Font Lock mode is disabled, @code{font-lock-face} has no effect on the display. It is ok for a mode to use @code{font-lock-face} for some text and also use the normal Font Lock machinery. But if the mode does not use the normal Font Lock machinery, it should not set the variable @code{font-lock-defaults}. @node Faces for Font Lock @subsection Faces for Font Lock @cindex faces for font lock @cindex font lock faces Font Lock mode can highlight using any face, but Emacs defines several faces specifically for Font Lock to use to highlight text. These @dfn{Font Lock faces} are listed below. They can also be used by major modes for syntactic highlighting outside of Font Lock mode (@pxref{Major Mode Conventions}). Each of these symbols is both a face name, and a variable whose default value is the symbol itself. Thus, the default value of @code{font-lock-comment-face} is @code{font-lock-comment-face}. The faces are listed with descriptions of their typical usage, and in order of greater to lesser ``prominence''. If a mode's syntactic categories do not fit well with the usage descriptions, the faces can be assigned using the ordering as a guide. @table @code @item font-lock-warning-face @vindex font-lock-warning-face for a construct that is peculiar, or that greatly changes the meaning of other text, like @samp{;;;###autoload} in Emacs Lisp and @samp{#error} in C. @item font-lock-function-name-face @vindex font-lock-function-name-face for the name of a function being defined or declared. @item font-lock-variable-name-face @vindex font-lock-variable-name-face for the name of a variable being defined or declared. @item font-lock-keyword-face @vindex font-lock-keyword-face for a keyword with special syntactic significance, like @samp{for} and @samp{if} in C. @item font-lock-comment-face @vindex font-lock-comment-face for comments. @item font-lock-comment-delimiter-face @vindex font-lock-comment-delimiter-face for comments delimiters, like @samp{/*} and @samp{*/} in C. On most terminals, this inherits from @code{font-lock-comment-face}. @item font-lock-type-face @vindex font-lock-type-face for the names of user-defined data types. @item font-lock-constant-face @vindex font-lock-constant-face for the names of constants, like @samp{NULL} in C. @item font-lock-builtin-face @vindex font-lock-builtin-face for the names of built-in functions. @item font-lock-preprocessor-face @vindex font-lock-preprocessor-face for preprocessor commands. This inherits, by default, from @code{font-lock-builtin-face}. @item font-lock-string-face @vindex font-lock-string-face for string constants. @item font-lock-doc-face @vindex font-lock-doc-face for documentation strings in the code. This inherits, by default, from @code{font-lock-string-face}. @item font-lock-negation-char-face @vindex font-lock-negation-char-face for easily-overlooked negation characters. @end table @node Syntactic Font Lock @subsection Syntactic Font Lock @cindex syntactic font lock Syntactic fontification uses a syntax table (@pxref{Syntax Tables}) to find and highlight syntactically relevant text. If enabled, it runs prior to search-based fontification. The variable @code{font-lock-syntactic-face-function}, documented below, determines which syntactic constructs to highlight. There are several variables that affect syntactic fontification; you should set them by means of @code{font-lock-defaults} (@pxref{Font Lock Basics}). Whenever Font Lock mode performs syntactic fontification on a stretch of text, it first calls the function specified by @code{syntax-propertize-function}. Major modes can use this to apply @code{syntax-table} text properties to override the buffer's syntax table in special cases. @xref{Syntax Properties}. @defvar font-lock-keywords-only If the value of this variable is non-@code{nil}, Font Lock does not do syntactic fontification, only search-based fontification based on @code{font-lock-keywords}. It is normally set by Font Lock mode based on the @var{keywords-only} element in @code{font-lock-defaults}. @end defvar @defvar font-lock-syntax-table This variable holds the syntax table to use for fontification of comments and strings. It is normally set by Font Lock mode based on the @var{syntax-alist} element in @code{font-lock-defaults}. If this value is @code{nil}, syntactic fontification uses the buffer's syntax table (the value returned by the function @code{syntax-table}; @pxref{Syntax Table Functions}). @end defvar @defvar font-lock-beginning-of-syntax-function If this variable is non-@code{nil}, it should be a function to move point back to a position that is syntactically at ``top level'' and outside of strings or comments. The value is normally set through an @var{other-vars} element in @code{font-lock-defaults}. If it is @code{nil}, Font Lock uses @code{syntax-begin-function} to move back outside of any comment, string, or sexp (@pxref{Position Parse}). This variable is semi-obsolete; we usually recommend setting @code{syntax-begin-function} instead. One of its uses is to tune the behavior of syntactic fontification, e.g.@: to ensure that different kinds of strings or comments are highlighted differently. The specified function is called with no arguments. It should leave point at the beginning of any enclosing syntactic block. Typical values are @code{beginning-of-line} (used when the start of the line is known to be outside a syntactic block), or @code{beginning-of-defun} for programming modes, or @code{backward-paragraph} for textual modes. @end defvar @defvar font-lock-syntactic-face-function If this variable is non-@code{nil}, it should be a function to determine which face to use for a given syntactic element (a string or a comment). The value is normally set through an @var{other-vars} element in @code{font-lock-defaults}. The function is called with one argument, the parse state at point returned by @code{parse-partial-sexp}, and should return a face. The default value returns @code{font-lock-comment-face} for comments and @code{font-lock-string-face} for strings (@pxref{Faces for Font Lock}). @end defvar @node Multiline Font Lock @subsection Multiline Font Lock Constructs @cindex multiline font lock Normally, elements of @code{font-lock-keywords} should not match across multiple lines; that doesn't work reliably, because Font Lock usually scans just part of the buffer, and it can miss a multi-line construct that crosses the line boundary where the scan starts. (The scan normally starts at the beginning of a line.) Making elements that match multiline constructs work properly has two aspects: correct @emph{identification} and correct @emph{rehighlighting}. The first means that Font Lock finds all multiline constructs. The second means that Font Lock will correctly rehighlight all the relevant text when a multiline construct is changed---for example, if some of the text that was previously part of a multiline construct ceases to be part of it. The two aspects are closely related, and often getting one of them to work will appear to make the other also work. However, for reliable results you must attend explicitly to both aspects. There are three ways to ensure correct identification of multiline constructs: @itemize @item Add a function to @code{font-lock-extend-region-functions} that does the @emph{identification} and extends the scan so that the scanned text never starts or ends in the middle of a multiline construct. @item Use the @code{font-lock-fontify-region-function} hook similarly to extend the scan so that the scanned text never starts or ends in the middle of a multiline construct. @item Somehow identify the multiline construct right when it gets inserted into the buffer (or at any point after that but before font-lock tries to highlight it), and mark it with a @code{font-lock-multiline} which will instruct font-lock not to start or end the scan in the middle of the construct. @end itemize There are three ways to do rehighlighting of multiline constructs: @itemize @item Place a @code{font-lock-multiline} property on the construct. This will rehighlight the whole construct if any part of it is changed. In some cases you can do this automatically by setting the @code{font-lock-multiline} variable, which see. @item Make sure @code{jit-lock-contextually} is set and rely on it doing its job. This will only rehighlight the part of the construct that follows the actual change, and will do it after a short delay. This only works if the highlighting of the various parts of your multiline construct never depends on text in subsequent lines. Since @code{jit-lock-contextually} is activated by default, this can be an attractive solution. @item Place a @code{jit-lock-defer-multiline} property on the construct. This works only if @code{jit-lock-contextually} is used, and with the same delay before rehighlighting, but like @code{font-lock-multiline}, it also handles the case where highlighting depends on subsequent lines. @end itemize @menu * Font Lock Multiline:: Marking multiline chunks with a text property. * Region to Refontify:: Controlling which region gets refontified after a buffer change. @end menu @node Font Lock Multiline @subsubsection Font Lock Multiline One way to ensure reliable rehighlighting of multiline Font Lock constructs is to put on them the text property @code{font-lock-multiline}. It should be present and non-@code{nil} for text that is part of a multiline construct. When Font Lock is about to highlight a range of text, it first extends the boundaries of the range as necessary so that they do not fall within text marked with the @code{font-lock-multiline} property. Then it removes any @code{font-lock-multiline} properties from the range, and highlights it. The highlighting specification (mostly @code{font-lock-keywords}) must reinstall this property each time, whenever it is appropriate. @strong{Warning:} don't use the @code{font-lock-multiline} property on large ranges of text, because that will make rehighlighting slow. @defvar font-lock-multiline If the @code{font-lock-multiline} variable is set to @code{t}, Font Lock will try to add the @code{font-lock-multiline} property automatically on multiline constructs. This is not a universal solution, however, since it slows down Font Lock somewhat. It can miss some multiline constructs, or make the property larger or smaller than necessary. For elements whose @var{matcher} is a function, the function should ensure that submatch 0 covers the whole relevant multiline construct, even if only a small subpart will be highlighted. It is often just as easy to add the @code{font-lock-multiline} property by hand. @end defvar The @code{font-lock-multiline} property is meant to ensure proper refontification; it does not automatically identify new multiline constructs. Identifying the requires that Font Lock mode operate on large enough chunks at a time. This will happen by accident on many cases, which may give the impression that multiline constructs magically work. If you set the @code{font-lock-multiline} variable non-@code{nil}, this impression will be even stronger, since the highlighting of those constructs which are found will be properly updated from then on. But that does not work reliably. To find multiline constructs reliably, you must either manually place the @code{font-lock-multiline} property on the text before Font Lock mode looks at it, or use @code{font-lock-fontify-region-function}. @node Region to Refontify @subsubsection Region to Fontify after a Buffer Change When a buffer is changed, the region that Font Lock refontifies is by default the smallest sequence of whole lines that spans the change. While this works well most of the time, sometimes it doesn't---for example, when a change alters the syntactic meaning of text on an earlier line. You can enlarge (or even reduce) the region to refontify by setting the following variable: @defvar font-lock-extend-after-change-region-function This buffer-local variable is either @code{nil} or a function for Font Lock mode to call to determine the region to scan and fontify. The function is given three parameters, the standard @var{beg}, @var{end}, and @var{old-len} from @code{after-change-functions} (@pxref{Change Hooks}). It should return either a cons of the beginning and end buffer positions (in that order) of the region to fontify, or @code{nil} (which means choose the region in the standard way). This function needs to preserve point, the match-data, and the current restriction. The region it returns may start or end in the middle of a line. Since this function is called after every buffer change, it should be reasonably fast. @end defvar @node Auto-Indentation @section Automatic Indentation of code For programming languages, an important feature of a major mode is to provide automatic indentation. This is controlled in Emacs by @code{indent-line-function} (@pxref{Mode-Specific Indent}). Writing a good indentation function can be difficult and to a large extent it is still a black art. Many major mode authors will start by writing a simple indentation function that works for simple cases, for example by comparing with the indentation of the previous text line. For most programming languages that are not really line-based, this tends to scale very poorly: improving such a function to let it handle more diverse situations tends to become more and more difficult, resulting in the end with a large, complex, unmaintainable indentation function which nobody dares to touch. A good indentation function will usually need to actually parse the text, according to the syntax of the language. Luckily, it is not necessary to parse the text in as much detail as would be needed for a compiler, but on the other hand, the parser embedded in the indentation code will want to be somewhat friendly to syntactically incorrect code. Good maintainable indentation functions usually fall into two categories: either parsing forward from some ``safe'' starting point until the position of interest, or parsing backward from the position of interest. Neither of the two is a clearly better choice than the other: parsing backward is often more difficult than parsing forward because programming languages are designed to be parsed forward, but for the purpose of indentation it has the advantage of not needing to guess a ``safe'' starting point, and it generally enjoys the property that only a minimum of text will be analyzed to decide the indentation of a line, so indentation will tend to be unaffected by syntax errors in some earlier unrelated piece of code. Parsing forward on the other hand is usually easier and has the advantage of making it possible to reindent efficiently a whole region at a time, with a single parse. Rather than write your own indentation function from scratch, it is often preferable to try and reuse some existing ones or to rely on a generic indentation engine. There are sadly few such engines. The CC-mode indentation code (used with C, C++, Java, Awk and a few other such modes) has been made more generic over the years, so if your language seems somewhat similar to one of those languages, you might try to use that engine. @c FIXME: documentation? Another one is SMIE which takes an approach in the spirit of Lisp sexps and adapts it to non-Lisp languages. @menu * SMIE:: A simple minded indentation engine @end menu @node SMIE @subsection Simple Minded Indentation Engine SMIE is a package that provides a generic navigation and indentation engine. Based on a very simple parser using an ``operator precedence grammar'', it lets major modes extend the sexp-based navigation of Lisp to non-Lisp languages as well as provide a simple to use but reliable auto-indentation. Operator precedence grammar is a very primitive technology for parsing compared to some of the more common techniques used in compilers. It has the following characteristics: its parsing power is very limited, and it is largely unable to detect syntax errors, but it has the advantage of being algorithmically efficient and able to parse forward just as well as backward. In practice that means that SMIE can use it for indentation based on backward parsing, that it can provide both @code{forward-sexp} and @code{backward-sexp} functionality, and that it will naturally work on syntactically incorrect code without any extra effort. The downside is that it also means that most programming languages cannot be parsed correctly using SMIE, at least not without resorting to some special tricks (@pxref{SMIE Tricks}). @menu * SMIE setup:: SMIE setup and features * Operator Precedence Grammars:: A very simple parsing technique * SMIE Grammar:: Defining the grammar of a language * SMIE Lexer:: Defining tokens * SMIE Tricks:: Working around the parser's limitations * SMIE Indentation:: Specifying indentation rules * SMIE Indentation Helpers:: Helper functions for indentation rules * SMIE Indentation Example:: Sample indentation rules @end menu @node SMIE setup @subsubsection SMIE Setup and Features SMIE is meant to be a one-stop shop for structural navigation and various other features which rely on the syntactic structure of code, in particular automatic indentation. The main entry point is @code{smie-setup} which is a function typically called while setting up a major mode. @defun smie-setup grammar rules-function &rest keywords Setup SMIE navigation and indentation. @var{grammar} is a grammar table generated by @code{smie-prec2->grammar}. @var{rules-function} is a set of indentation rules for use on @code{smie-rules-function}. @var{keywords} are additional arguments, which can include the following keywords: @itemize @item @code{:forward-token} @var{fun}: Specify the forward lexer to use. @item @code{:backward-token} @var{fun}: Specify the backward lexer to use. @end itemize @end defun Calling this function is sufficient to make commands such as @code{forward-sexp}, @code{backward-sexp}, and @code{transpose-sexps} be able to properly handle structural elements other than just the paired parentheses already handled by syntax tables. For example, if the provided grammar is precise enough, @code{transpose-sexps} can correctly transpose the two arguments of a @code{+} operator, taking into account the precedence rules of the language. Calling `smie-setup' is also sufficient to make TAB indentation work in the expected way, extends @code{blink-matching-paren} to apply to elements like @code{begin...end}, and provides some commands that you can bind in the major mode keymap. @deffn Command smie-close-block This command closes the most recently opened (and not yet closed) block. @end deffn @deffn Command smie-down-list &optional arg This command is like @code{down-list} but it also pays attention to nesting of tokens other than parentheses, such as @code{begin...end}. @end deffn @node Operator Precedence Grammars @subsubsection Operator Precedence Grammars SMIE's precedence grammars simply give to each token a pair of precedences: the left-precedence and the right-precedence. We say @code{T1 < T2} if the right-precedence of token @code{T1} is less than the left-precedence of token @code{T2}. A good way to read this @code{<} is as a kind of parenthesis: if we find @code{... T1 something T2 ...} then that should be parsed as @code{... T1 (something T2 ...} rather than as @code{... T1 something) T2 ...}. The latter interpretation would be the case if we had @code{T1 > T2}. If we have @code{T1 = T2}, it means that token T2 follows token T1 in the same syntactic construction, so typically we have @code{"begin" = "end"}. Such pairs of precedences are sufficient to express left-associativity or right-associativity of infix operators, nesting of tokens like parentheses and many other cases. @c Let's leave this undocumented to leave it more open for change! @c @defvar smie-grammar @c The value of this variable is an alist specifying the left and right @c precedence of each token. It is meant to be initialized by using one of @c the functions below. @c @end defvar @defun smie-prec2->grammar table This function takes a @emph{prec2} grammar @var{table} and returns an alist suitable for use in @code{smie-setup}. The @emph{prec2} @var{table} is itself meant to be built by one of the functions below. @end defun @defun smie-merge-prec2s &rest tables This function takes several @emph{prec2} @var{tables} and merges them into a new @emph{prec2} table. @end defun @defun smie-precs->prec2 precs This function builds a @emph{prec2} table from a table of precedences @var{precs}. @var{precs} should be a list, sorted by precedence (for example @code{"+"} will come before @code{"*"}), of elements of the form @code{(@var{assoc} @var{op} ...)}, where each @var{op} is a token that acts as an operator; @var{assoc} is their associativity, which can be either @code{left}, @code{right}, @code{assoc}, or @code{nonassoc}. All operators in a given element share the same precedence level and associativity. @end defun @defun smie-bnf->prec2 bnf &rest resolvers This function lets you specify the grammar using a BNF notation. It accepts a @var{bnf} description of the grammar along with a set of conflict resolution rules @var{resolvers}, and returns a @emph{prec2} table. @var{bnf} is a list of nonterminal definitions of the form @code{(@var{nonterm} @var{rhs1} @var{rhs2} ...)} where each @var{rhs} is a (non-empty) list of terminals (aka tokens) or non-terminals. Not all grammars are accepted: @itemize @item An @var{rhs} cannot be an empty list (an empty list is never needed, since SMIE allows all non-terminals to match the empty string anyway). @item An @var{rhs} cannot have 2 consecutive non-terminals: each pair of non-terminals needs to be separated by a terminal (aka token). This is a fundamental limitation of operator precedence grammars. @end itemize Additionally, conflicts can occur: @itemize @item The returned @emph{prec2} table holds constraints between pairs of tokens, and for any given pair only one constraint can be present: T1 < T2, T1 = T2, or T1 > T2. @item A token can be an @code{opener} (something similar to an open-paren), a @code{closer} (like a close-paren), or @code{neither} of the two (e.g. an infix operator, or an inner token like @code{"else"}). @end itemize Precedence conflicts can be resolved via @var{resolvers}, which is a list of @emph{precs} tables (see @code{smie-precs->prec2}): for each precedence conflict, if those @code{precs} tables specify a particular constraint, then the conflict is resolved by using this constraint instead, else a conflict is reported and one of the conflicting constraints is picked arbitrarily and the others are simply ignored. @end defun @node SMIE Grammar @subsubsection Defining the Grammar of a Language The usual way to define the SMIE grammar of a language is by defining a new global variable that holds the precedence table by giving a set of BNF rules. For example, the grammar definition for a small Pascal-like language could look like: @example @group (require 'smie) (defvar sample-smie-grammar (smie-prec2->grammar (smie-bnf->prec2 @end group @group '((id) (inst ("begin" insts "end") ("if" exp "then" inst "else" inst) (id ":=" exp) (exp)) (insts (insts ";" insts) (inst)) (exp (exp "+" exp) (exp "*" exp) ("(" exps ")")) (exps (exps "," exps) (exp))) @end group @group '((assoc ";")) '((assoc ",")) '((assoc "+") (assoc "*"))))) @end group @end example @noindent A few things to note: @itemize @item The above grammar does not explicitly mention the syntax of function calls: SMIE will automatically allow any sequence of sexps, such as identifiers, balanced parentheses, or @code{begin ... end} blocks to appear anywhere anyway. @item The grammar category @code{id} has no right hand side: this does not mean that it can match only the empty string, since as mentioned any sequence of sexps can appear anywhere anyway. @item Because non terminals cannot appear consecutively in the BNF grammar, it is difficult to correctly handle tokens that act as terminators, so the above grammar treats @code{";"} as a statement @emph{separator} instead, which SMIE can handle very well. @item Separators used in sequences (such as @code{","} and @code{";"} above) are best defined with BNF rules such as @code{(foo (foo "separator" foo) ...)} which generate precedence conflicts which are then resolved by giving them an explicit @code{(assoc "separator")}. @item The @code{("(" exps ")")} rule was not needed to pair up parens, since SMIE will pair up any characters that are marked as having paren syntax in the syntax table. What this rule does instead (together with the definition of @code{exps}) is to make it clear that @code{","} should not appear outside of parentheses. @item Rather than have a single @emph{precs} table to resolve conflicts, it is preferable to have several tables, so as to let the BNF part of the grammar specify relative precedences where possible. @item Unless there is a very good reason to prefer @code{left} or @code{right}, it is usually preferable to mark operators as associative, using @code{assoc}. For that reason @code{"+"} and @code{"*"} are defined above as @code{assoc}, although the language defines them formally as left associative. @end itemize @node SMIE Lexer @subsubsection Defining Tokens SMIE comes with a predefined lexical analyzer which uses syntax tables in the following way: any sequence of characters that have word or symbol syntax is considered a token, and so is any sequence of characters that have punctuation syntax. This default lexer is often a good starting point but is rarely actually correct for any given language. For example, it will consider @code{"2,+3"} to be composed of 3 tokens: @code{"2"}, @code{",+"}, and @code{"3"}. To describe the lexing rules of your language to SMIE, you need 2 functions, one to fetch the next token, and another to fetch the previous token. Those functions will usually first skip whitespace and comments and then look at the next chunk of text to see if it is a special token. If so it should skip the token and return a description of this token. Usually this is simply the string extracted from the buffer, but it can be anything you want. For example: @example @group (defvar sample-keywords-regexp (regexp-opt '("+" "*" "," ";" ">" ">=" "<" "<=" ":=" "="))) @end group @group (defun sample-smie-forward-token () (forward-comment (point-max)) (cond ((looking-at sample-keywords-regexp) (goto-char (match-end 0)) (match-string-no-properties 0)) (t (buffer-substring-no-properties (point) (progn (skip-syntax-forward "w_") (point)))))) @end group @group (defun sample-smie-backward-token () (forward-comment (- (point))) (cond ((looking-back sample-keywords-regexp (- (point) 2) t) (goto-char (match-beginning 0)) (match-string-no-properties 0)) (t (buffer-substring-no-properties (point) (progn (skip-syntax-backward "w_") (point)))))) @end group @end example Notice how those lexers return the empty string when in front of parentheses. This is because SMIE automatically takes care of the parentheses defined in the syntax table. More specifically if the lexer returns nil or an empty string, SMIE tries to handle the corresponding text as a sexp according to syntax tables. @node SMIE Tricks @subsubsection Living With a Weak Parser The parsing technique used by SMIE does not allow tokens to behave differently in different contexts. For most programming languages, this manifests itself by precedence conflicts when converting the BNF grammar. Sometimes, those conflicts can be worked around by expressing the grammar slightly differently. For example, for Modula-2 it might seem natural to have a BNF grammar that looks like this: @example ... (inst ("IF" exp "THEN" insts "ELSE" insts "END") ("CASE" exp "OF" cases "END") ...) (cases (cases "|" cases) (caselabel ":" insts) ("ELSE" insts)) ... @end example But this will create conflicts for @code{"ELSE"}: on the one hand, the IF rule implies (among many other things) that @code{"ELSE" = "END"}; but on the other hand, since @code{"ELSE"} appears within @code{cases}, which appears left of @code{"END"}, we also have @code{"ELSE" > "END"}. We can solve the conflict either by using: @example ... (inst ("IF" exp "THEN" insts "ELSE" insts "END") ("CASE" exp "OF" cases "END") ("CASE" exp "OF" cases "ELSE" insts "END") ...) (cases (cases "|" cases) (caselabel ":" insts)) ... @end example or @example ... (inst ("IF" exp "THEN" else "END") ("CASE" exp "OF" cases "END") ...) (else (insts "ELSE" insts)) (cases (cases "|" cases) (caselabel ":" insts) (else)) ... @end example Reworking the grammar to try and solve conflicts has its downsides, tho, because SMIE assumes that the grammar reflects the logical structure of the code, so it is preferable to keep the BNF closer to the intended abstract syntax tree. Other times, after careful consideration you may conclude that those conflicts are not serious and simply resolve them via the @var{resolvers} argument of @code{smie-bnf->prec2}. Usually this is because the grammar is simply ambiguous: the conflict does not affect the set of programs described by the grammar, but only the way those programs are parsed. This is typically the case for separators and associative infix operators, where you want to add a resolver like @code{'((assoc "|"))}. Another case where this can happen is for the classic @emph{dangling else} problem, where you will use @code{'((assoc "else" "then"))}. It can also happen for cases where the conflict is real and cannot really be resolved, but it is unlikely to pose a problem in practice. Finally, in many cases some conflicts will remain despite all efforts to restructure the grammar. Do not despair: while the parser cannot be made more clever, you can make the lexer as smart as you want. So, the solution is then to look at the tokens involved in the conflict and to split one of those tokens into 2 (or more) different tokens. E.g. if the grammar needs to distinguish between two incompatible uses of the token @code{"begin"}, make the lexer return different tokens (say @code{"begin-fun"} and @code{"begin-plain"}) depending on which kind of @code{"begin"} it finds. This pushes the work of distinguishing the different cases to the lexer, which will thus have to look at the surrounding text to find ad-hoc clues. @node SMIE Indentation @subsubsection Specifying Indentation Rules Based on the provided grammar, SMIE will be able to provide automatic indentation without any extra effort. But in practice, this default indentation style will probably not be good enough. You will want to tweak it in many different cases. SMIE indentation is based on the idea that indentation rules should be as local as possible. To this end, it relies on the idea of @emph{virtual} indentation, which is the indentation that a particular program point would have if it were at the beginning of a line. Of course, if that program point is indeed at the beginning of a line, its virtual indentation is its current indentation. But if not, then SMIE uses the indentation algorithm to compute the virtual indentation of that point. Now in practice, the virtual indentation of a program point does not have to be identical to the indentation it would have if we inserted a newline before it. To see how this works, the SMIE rule for indentation after a @code{@{} in C does not care whether the @code{@{} is standing on a line of its own or is at the end of the preceding line. Instead, these different cases are handled in the indentation rule that decides how to indent before a @code{@{}. Another important concept is the notion of @emph{parent}: The @emph{parent} of a token, is the head token of the nearest enclosing syntactic construct. For example, the parent of an @code{else} is the @code{if} to which it belongs, and the parent of an @code{if}, in turn, is the lead token of the surrounding construct. The command @code{backward-sexp} jumps from a token to its parent, but there are some caveats: for @emph{openers} (tokens which start a construct, like @code{if}), you need to start with point before the token, while for others you need to start with point after the token. @code{backward-sexp} stops with point before the parent token if that is the @emph{opener} of the token of interest, and otherwise it stops with point after the parent token. SMIE indentation rules are specified using a function that takes two arguments @var{method} and @var{arg} where the meaning of @var{arg} and the expected return value depend on @var{method}. @var{method} can be: @itemize @item @code{:after}, in which case @var{arg} is a token and the function should return the @var{offset} to use for indentation after @var{arg}. @item @code{:before}, in which case @var{arg} is a token and the function should return the @var{offset} to use to indent @var{arg} itself. @item @code{:elem}, in which case the function should return either the offset to use to indent function arguments (if @var{arg} is the symbol @code{arg}) or the basic indentation step (if @var{arg} is the symbol @code{basic}). @item @code{:list-intro}, in which case @var{arg} is a token and the function should return non-@code{nil} if the token is followed by a list of expressions (not separated by any token) rather than an expression. @end itemize When @var{arg} is a token, the function is called with point just before that token. A return value of nil always means to fallback on the default behavior, so the function should return nil for arguments it does not expect. @var{offset} can be: @itemize @item @code{nil}: use the default indentation rule. @item @code{(column . @var{column})}: indent to column @var{column}. @item @var{number}: offset by @var{number}, relative to a base token which is the current token for @code{:after} and its parent for @code{:before}. @end itemize @node SMIE Indentation Helpers @subsubsection Helper Functions for Indentation Rules SMIE provides various functions designed specifically for use in the indentation rules function (several of those functions break if used in another context). These functions all start with the prefix @code{smie-rule-}. @defun smie-rule-bolp Return non-@code{nil} if the current token is the first on the line. @end defun @defun smie-rule-hanging-p Return non-@code{nil} if the current token is @emph{hanging}. A token is @emph{hanging} if it is the last token on the line and if it is preceded by other tokens: a lone token on a line is not hanging. @end defun @defun smie-rule-next-p &rest tokens Return non-@code{nil} if the next token is among @var{tokens}. @end defun @defun smie-rule-prev-p &rest tokens Return non-@code{nil} if the previous token is among @var{tokens}. @end defun @defun smie-rule-parent-p &rest parents Return non-@code{nil} if the current token's parent is among @var{parents}. @end defun @defun smie-rule-sibling-p Return non-nil if the current token's parent is actually a sibling. This is the case for example when the parent of a @code{","} is just the previous @code{","}. @end defun @defun smie-rule-parent &optional offset Return the proper offset to align the current token with the parent. If non-@code{nil}, @var{offset} should be an integer giving an additional offset to apply. @end defun @defun smie-rule-separator method Indent current token as a @emph{separator}. By @emph{separator}, we mean here a token whose sole purpose is to separate various elements within some enclosing syntactic construct, and which does not have any semantic significance in itself (i.e. it would typically not exist as a node in an abstract syntax tree). Such a token is expected to have an associative syntax and be closely tied to its syntactic parent. Typical examples are @code{","} in lists of arguments (enclosed inside parentheses), or @code{";"} in sequences of instructions (enclosed in a @code{@{...@}} or @code{begin...end} block). @var{method} should be the method name that was passed to `smie-rules-function'. @end defun @node SMIE Indentation Example @subsubsection Sample Indentation Rules Here is an example of an indentation function: @example (defun sample-smie-rules (kind token) (pcase (cons kind token) (`(:elem . basic) sample-indent-basic) (`(,_ . ",") (smie-rule-separator kind)) (`(:after . ":=") sample-indent-basic) (`(:before . ,(or `"begin" `"(" `"@{"))) (if (smie-rule-hanging-p) (smie-rule-parent))) (`(:before . "if") (and (not (smie-rule-bolp)) (smie-rule-prev-p "else") (smie-rule-parent))))) @end example @noindent A few things to note: @itemize @item The first case indicates the basic indentation increment to use. If @code{sample-indent-basic} is nil, then SMIE uses the global setting @code{smie-indent-basic}. The major mode could have set @code{smie-indent-basic} buffer-locally instead, but that is discouraged. @item The rule for the token @code{","} make SMIE try to be more clever when the comma separator is placed at the beginning of lines. It tries to outdent the separator so as to align the code after the comma; for example: @example x = longfunctionname ( arg1 , arg2 ); @end example @item The rule for indentation after @code{":="} exists because otherwise SMIE would treat @code{":="} as an infix operator and would align the right argument with the left one. @item The rule for indentation before @code{"begin"} is an example of the use of virtual indentation: This rule is used only when @code{"begin"} is hanging, which can happen only when @code{"begin"} is not at the beginning of a line. So this is not used when indenting @code{"begin"} itself but only when indenting something relative to this @code{"begin"}. Concretely, this rule changes the indentation from: @example if x > 0 then begin dosomething(x); end @end example to @example if x > 0 then begin dosomething(x); end @end example @item The rule for indentation before @code{"if"} is similar to the one for @code{"begin"}, but where the purpose is to treat @code{"else if"} as a single unit, so as to align a sequence of tests rather than indent each test further to the right. This function does this only in the case where the @code{"if"} is not placed on a separate line, hence the @code{smie-rule-bolp} test. If we know that the @code{"else"} is always aligned with its @code{"if"} and is always at the beginning of a line, we can use a more efficient rule: @example ((equal token "if") (and (not (smie-rule-bolp)) (smie-rule-prev-p "else") (save-excursion (sample-smie-backward-token) (cons 'column (current-column))))) @end example The advantage of this formulation is that it reuses the indentation of the previous @code{"else"}, rather than going all the way back to the first @code{"if"} of the sequence. @end itemize @node Desktop Save Mode @section Desktop Save Mode @cindex desktop save mode @dfn{Desktop Save Mode} is a feature to save the state of Emacs from one session to another. The user-level commands for using Desktop Save Mode are described in the GNU Emacs Manual (@pxref{Saving Emacs Sessions,,, emacs, the GNU Emacs Manual}). Modes whose buffers visit a file, don't have to do anything to use this feature. For buffers not visiting a file to have their state saved, the major mode must bind the buffer local variable @code{desktop-save-buffer} to a non-@code{nil} value. @defvar desktop-save-buffer If this buffer-local variable is non-@code{nil}, the buffer will have its state saved in the desktop file at desktop save. If the value is a function, it is called at desktop save with argument @var{desktop-dirname}, and its value is saved in the desktop file along with the state of the buffer for which it was called. When file names are returned as part of the auxiliary information, they should be formatted using the call @example (desktop-file-name @var{file-name} @var{desktop-dirname}) @end example @end defvar For buffers not visiting a file to be restored, the major mode must define a function to do the job, and that function must be listed in the alist @code{desktop-buffer-mode-handlers}. @defvar desktop-buffer-mode-handlers Alist with elements @example (@var{major-mode} . @var{restore-buffer-function}) @end example The function @var{restore-buffer-function} will be called with argument list @example (@var{buffer-file-name} @var{buffer-name} @var{desktop-buffer-misc}) @end example and it should return the restored buffer. Here @var{desktop-buffer-misc} is the value returned by the function optionally bound to @code{desktop-save-buffer}. @end defvar