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3177 lines
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3177 lines
138 KiB
Plaintext
@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
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@c Copyright (C) 1985,86,87,93,94,95,97,99, 2000, 2001
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@c Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
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@node Files, Buffers, Fixit, Top
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@chapter File Handling
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@cindex files
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The operating system stores data permanently in named @dfn{files}, so
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most of the text you edit with Emacs comes from a file and is ultimately
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stored in a file.
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To edit a file, you must tell Emacs to read the file and prepare a
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buffer containing a copy of the file's text. This is called
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@dfn{visiting} the file. Editing commands apply directly to text in the
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buffer; that is, to the copy inside Emacs. Your changes appear in the
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file itself only when you @dfn{save} the buffer back into the file.
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In addition to visiting and saving files, Emacs can delete, copy,
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rename, and append to files, keep multiple versions of them, and operate
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on file directories.
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@menu
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* File Names:: How to type and edit file-name arguments.
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* Visiting:: Visiting a file prepares Emacs to edit the file.
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* Saving:: Saving makes your changes permanent.
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* Reverting:: Reverting cancels all the changes not saved.
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* Auto Save:: Auto Save periodically protects against loss of data.
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* File Aliases:: Handling multiple names for one file.
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* Version Control:: Version control systems (RCS, CVS and SCCS).
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* Directories:: Creating, deleting, and listing file directories.
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* Comparing Files:: Finding where two files differ.
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* Misc File Ops:: Other things you can do on files.
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* Compressed Files:: Accessing compressed files.
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* File Archives:: Operating on tar, zip, jar etc. archive files.
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* Remote Files:: Accessing files on other sites.
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* Quoted File Names:: Quoting special characters in file names.
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* File Name Cache:: Completion against a list of files you often use.
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* File Conveniences:: Convenience Features for Finding Files.
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@end menu
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@node File Names
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@section File Names
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@cindex file names
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Most Emacs commands that operate on a file require you to specify the
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file name. (Saving and reverting are exceptions; the buffer knows which
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file name to use for them.) You enter the file name using the
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minibuffer (@pxref{Minibuffer}). @dfn{Completion} is available
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(@pxref{Completion}) to make it easier to specify long file names. When
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completing file names, Emacs ignores those whose file-name extensions
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appear in the variable @code{completion-ignored-extensions}; see
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@ref{Completion Options}.
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For most operations, there is a @dfn{default file name} which is used
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if you type just @key{RET} to enter an empty argument. Normally the
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default file name is the name of the file visited in the current buffer;
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this makes it easy to operate on that file with any of the Emacs file
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commands.
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@vindex default-directory
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Each buffer has a default directory which is normally the same as the
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directory of the file visited in that buffer. When you enter a file
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name without a directory, the default directory is used. If you specify
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a directory in a relative fashion, with a name that does not start with
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a slash, it is interpreted with respect to the default directory. The
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default directory is kept in the variable @code{default-directory},
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which has a separate value in every buffer.
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For example, if the default file name is @file{/u/rms/gnu/gnu.tasks} then
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the default directory is @file{/u/rms/gnu/}. If you type just @samp{foo},
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which does not specify a directory, it is short for @file{/u/rms/gnu/foo}.
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@samp{../.login} would stand for @file{/u/rms/.login}. @samp{new/foo}
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would stand for the file name @file{/u/rms/gnu/new/foo}.
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@findex cd
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@findex pwd
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The command @kbd{M-x pwd} displays the current buffer's default
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directory, and the command @kbd{M-x cd} sets it (to a value read using
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the minibuffer). A buffer's default directory changes only when the
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@code{cd} command is used. A file-visiting buffer's default directory
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is initialized to the directory of the file that is visited in that buffer. If
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you create a buffer with @kbd{C-x b}, its default directory is copied
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from that of the buffer that was current at the time.
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@vindex insert-default-directory
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The default directory actually appears in the minibuffer when the
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minibuffer becomes active to read a file name. This serves two
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purposes: it @emph{shows} you what the default is, so that you can type
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a relative file name and know with certainty what it will mean, and it
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allows you to @emph{edit} the default to specify a different directory.
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This insertion of the default directory is inhibited if the variable
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@code{insert-default-directory} is set to @code{nil}.
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Note that it is legitimate to type an absolute file name after you
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enter the minibuffer, ignoring the presence of the default directory
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name as part of the text. The final minibuffer contents may look
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invalid, but that is not so. For example, if the minibuffer starts out
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with @samp{/usr/tmp/} and you add @samp{/x1/rms/foo}, you get
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@samp{/usr/tmp//x1/rms/foo}; but Emacs ignores everything through the
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first slash in the double slash; the result is @samp{/x1/rms/foo}.
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@xref{Minibuffer File}.
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@cindex environment variables in file names
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@cindex expansion of environment variables
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@cindex @code{$} in file names
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@anchor{File Names with $}@samp{$} in a file name is used to
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substitute an environment variable. The environment variable name
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consists of all the alphanumeric characters after the @samp{$};
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alternatively, it can be enclosed in braces after the @samp{$}. For
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example, if you have used the shell command @command{export
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FOO=rms/hacks} to set up an environment variable named @env{FOO}, then
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you can use @file{/u/$FOO/test.c} or @file{/u/$@{FOO@}/test.c} as an
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abbreviation for @file{/u/rms/hacks/test.c}. If the environment
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variable is not defined, no substitution occurs: @file{/u/$notdefined}
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stands for itself (assuming the environment variable @env{notdefined}
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is not defined).
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Note that shell commands to set environment variables affect Emacs
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only when done before Emacs is started.
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@cindex home directory shorthand
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You can use the @file{~/} in a file name to mean your home directory,
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or @file{~@var{user-id}/} to mean the home directory of a user whose
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login name is @code{user-id}. (On DOS and Windows systems, where a user
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doesn't have a home directory, Emacs substitutes @file{~/} with the
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value of the environment variable @code{HOME}; see @ref{General
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Variables}.)
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To access a file with @samp{$} in its name, if the @samp{$} causes
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expansion, type @samp{$$}. This pair is converted to a single
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@samp{$} at the same time as variable substitution is performed for a
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single @samp{$}. Alternatively, quote the whole file name with
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@samp{/:} (@pxref{Quoted File Names}). File names which begin with a
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literal @samp{~} should also be quoted with @samp{/:}.
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@findex substitute-in-file-name
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The Lisp function that performs the substitution is called
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@code{substitute-in-file-name}. The substitution is performed only on
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file names read as such using the minibuffer.
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You can include non-ASCII characters in file names if you set the
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variable @code{file-name-coding-system} to a non-@code{nil} value.
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@xref{Specify Coding}.
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@node Visiting
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@section Visiting Files
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@cindex visiting files
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@table @kbd
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@item C-x C-f
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Visit a file (@code{find-file}).
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@item C-x C-r
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Visit a file for viewing, without allowing changes to it
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(@code{find-file-read-only}).
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@item C-x C-v
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Visit a different file instead of the one visited last
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(@code{find-alternate-file}).
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@item C-x 4 f
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Visit a file, in another window (@code{find-file-other-window}). Don't
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alter what is displayed in the selected window.
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@item C-x 5 f
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Visit a file, in a new frame (@code{find-file-other-frame}). Don't
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alter what is displayed in the selected frame.
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@item M-x find-file-literally
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Visit a file with no conversion of the contents.
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@end table
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@cindex files, visiting and saving
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@cindex saving files
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@dfn{Visiting} a file means copying its contents into an Emacs
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buffer so you can edit them. Emacs makes a new buffer for each file
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that you visit. We often say that this buffer ``is visiting'' that
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file, or that the buffer's ``visited file'' is that file. Emacs
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constructs the buffer name from the file name by throwing away the
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directory, keeping just the name proper. For example, a file named
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@file{/usr/rms/emacs.tex} would get a buffer named @samp{emacs.tex}.
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If there is already a buffer with that name, Emacs constructs a unique
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name---the normal method is to append @samp{<2>}, @samp{<3>}, and so
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on, but you can select other methods (@pxref{Uniquify}).
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Each window's mode line shows the name of the buffer that is being displayed
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in that window, so you can always tell what buffer you are editing.
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The changes you make with editing commands are made in the Emacs
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buffer. They do not take effect in the file that you visited, or any
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place permanent, until you @dfn{save} the buffer. Saving the buffer
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means that Emacs writes the current contents of the buffer into its
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visited file. @xref{Saving}.
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@cindex modified (buffer)
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If a buffer contains changes that have not been saved, we say the
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buffer is @dfn{modified}. This is important because it implies that
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some changes will be lost if the buffer is not saved. The mode line
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displays two stars near the left margin to indicate that the buffer is
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modified.
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@kindex C-x C-f
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@findex find-file
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To visit a file, use the command @kbd{C-x C-f} (@code{find-file}). Follow
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the command with the name of the file you wish to visit, terminated by a
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@key{RET}.
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The file name is read using the minibuffer (@pxref{Minibuffer}), with
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defaulting and completion in the standard manner (@pxref{File Names}).
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While in the minibuffer, you can abort @kbd{C-x C-f} by typing
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@kbd{C-g}. File-name completion ignores certain filenames; for more
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about this, see @ref{Completion Options}.
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@cindex file selection dialog
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When Emacs is built with a suitable GUI toolkit, it pops up the
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standard File Selection dialog of that toolkit instead of prompting for
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the file name in the minibuffer. On Unix and GNU/Linux platforms, Emacs
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does that when built with LessTif and Motif toolkits; on MS-Windows, the
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GUI version does that by default.
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Your confirmation that @kbd{C-x C-f} has completed successfully is the
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appearance of new text on the screen and a new buffer name in the mode
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line. If the specified file does not exist and could not be created, or
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cannot be read, then you get an error, with an error message displayed
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in the echo area.
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If you visit a file that is already in Emacs, @kbd{C-x C-f} does not make
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another copy. It selects the existing buffer containing that file.
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However, before doing so, it checks that the file itself has not changed
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since you visited or saved it last. If the file has changed, a warning
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message is shown. @xref{Interlocking,,Simultaneous Editing}.
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@cindex maximum buffer size exceeded, error message
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Since Emacs reads the visited file in its entirety, files whose size
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is larger than the maximum Emacs buffer size (@pxref{Buffers}) cannot be
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visited; if you try, Emacs will display an error message saying that the
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maximum buffer size has been exceeded.
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@cindex creating files
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What if you want to create a new file? Just visit it. Emacs displays
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@samp{(New file)} in the echo area, but in other respects behaves as if
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you had visited an existing empty file. If you make any changes and
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save them, the file is created.
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Emacs recognizes from the contents of a file which convention it uses
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to separate lines---newline (used on GNU/Linux and on Unix),
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carriage-return linefeed (used on Microsoft systems), or just
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carriage-return (used on the Macintosh)---and automatically converts the
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contents to the normal Emacs convention, which is that the newline
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character separates lines. This is a part of the general feature of
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coding system conversion (@pxref{Coding Systems}), and makes it possible
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to edit files imported from different operating systems with
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equal convenience. If you change the text and save the file, Emacs
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performs the inverse conversion, changing newlines back into
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carriage-return linefeed or just carriage-return if appropriate.
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@vindex find-file-run-dired
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If the file you specify is actually a directory, @kbd{C-x C-f} invokes
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Dired, the Emacs directory browser, so that you can ``edit'' the contents
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of the directory (@pxref{Dired}). Dired is a convenient way to delete,
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look at, or operate on the files in the directory. However, if the
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variable @code{find-file-run-dired} is @code{nil}, then it is an error
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to try to visit a directory.
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Files which are actually collections of other files, or @dfn{file
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archives}, are visited in special modes which invoke a Dired-like
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environment to allow operations on archive members. @xref{File
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Archives}, for more about these features.
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@cindex wildcard characters in file names
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@vindex find-file-wildcards
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If the file name you specify contains shell-style wildcard characters,
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Emacs visits all the files that match it. Wildcards include @samp{?},
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@samp{*}, and @samp{[@dots{}]} sequences. @xref{Quoted File Names}, for
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information on how to visit a file whose name actually contains wildcard
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characters. You can disable the wildcard feature by customizing
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@code{find-file-wildcards}.
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If you visit a file that the operating system won't let you modify,
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or that is marked read-only, Emacs makes the buffer read-only too, so
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that you won't go ahead and make changes that you'll have trouble
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saving afterward. You can make the buffer writable with @kbd{C-x C-q}
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(@code{vc-toggle-read-only}). @xref{Misc Buffer}.
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@kindex C-x C-r
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@findex find-file-read-only
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If you want to visit a file as read-only in order to protect
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yourself from entering changes accidentally, visit it with the command
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@kbd{C-x C-r} (@code{find-file-read-only}) instead of @kbd{C-x C-f}.
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@kindex C-x C-v
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@findex find-alternate-file
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If you visit a nonexistent file unintentionally (because you typed the
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wrong file name), use the @kbd{C-x C-v} command
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(@code{find-alternate-file}) to visit the file you really wanted.
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@kbd{C-x C-v} is similar to @kbd{C-x C-f}, but it kills the current
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buffer (after first offering to save it if it is modified). When
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@kbd{C-x C-v} reads the file name to visit, it inserts the entire
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default file name in the buffer, with point just after the directory
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part; this is convenient if you made a slight error in typing the name.
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If you find a file which exists but cannot be read, @kbd{C-x C-f}
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signals an error.
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@kindex C-x 4 f
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@findex find-file-other-window
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@kbd{C-x 4 f} (@code{find-file-other-window}) is like @kbd{C-x C-f}
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except that the buffer containing the specified file is selected in another
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window. The window that was selected before @kbd{C-x 4 f} continues to
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show the same buffer it was already showing. If this command is used when
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only one window is being displayed, that window is split in two, with one
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window showing the same buffer as before, and the other one showing the
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newly requested file. @xref{Windows}.
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@kindex C-x 5 f
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@findex find-file-other-frame
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@kbd{C-x 5 f} (@code{find-file-other-frame}) is similar, but opens a
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new frame, or makes visible any existing frame showing the file you
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seek. This feature is available only when you are using a window
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system. @xref{Frames}.
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@findex find-file-literally
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If you wish to edit a file as a sequence of ASCII characters with no special
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encoding or conversion, use the @kbd{M-x find-file-literally} command.
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It visits a file, like @kbd{C-x C-f}, but does not do format conversion
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(@pxref{Formatted Text}), character code conversion (@pxref{Coding
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Systems}), or automatic uncompression (@pxref{Compressed Files}), and
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does not add a final newline because of @code{require-final-newline}.
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If you already have visited the same file in the usual (non-literal)
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manner, this command asks you whether to visit it literally instead.
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@vindex find-file-hook
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@vindex find-file-not-found-functions
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Two special hook variables allow extensions to modify the operation of
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visiting files. Visiting a file that does not exist runs the functions
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in the list @code{find-file-not-found-functions}; this variable holds a list
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of functions, and the functions are called one by one (with no
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arguments) until one of them returns non-@code{nil}. This is not a
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normal hook, and the name ends in @samp{-functions} rather than @samp{-hook}
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to indicate that fact.
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Successful visiting of any file, whether existing or not, calls the
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functions in the list @code{find-file-hook}, with no arguments.
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This variable is a normal hook. In the case of a nonexistent file, the
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@code{find-file-not-found-functions} are run first. @xref{Hooks}.
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There are several ways to specify automatically the major mode for
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editing the file (@pxref{Choosing Modes}), and to specify local
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variables defined for that file (@pxref{File Variables}).
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@node Saving
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@section Saving Files
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@dfn{Saving} a buffer in Emacs means writing its contents back into the file
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that was visited in the buffer.
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@table @kbd
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@item C-x C-s
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Save the current buffer in its visited file on disk (@code{save-buffer}).
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@item C-x s
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Save any or all buffers in their visited files (@code{save-some-buffers}).
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@item M-~
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Forget that the current buffer has been changed (@code{not-modified}).
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With prefix argument (@kbd{C-u}), mark the current buffer as changed.
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@item C-x C-w
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Save the current buffer as a specified file name (@code{write-file}).
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@item M-x set-visited-file-name
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Change the file name under which the current buffer will be saved.
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@end table
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@kindex C-x C-s
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@findex save-buffer
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When you wish to save the file and make your changes permanent, type
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@kbd{C-x C-s} (@code{save-buffer}). After saving is finished, @kbd{C-x C-s}
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displays a message like this:
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@example
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Wrote /u/rms/gnu/gnu.tasks
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@end example
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@noindent
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If the selected buffer is not modified (no changes have been made in it
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since the buffer was created or last saved), saving is not really done,
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because it would have no effect. Instead, @kbd{C-x C-s} displays a message
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like this in the echo area:
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@example
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(No changes need to be saved)
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@end example
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@kindex C-x s
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@findex save-some-buffers
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The command @kbd{C-x s} (@code{save-some-buffers}) offers to save any
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or all modified buffers. It asks you what to do with each buffer. The
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possible responses are analogous to those of @code{query-replace}:
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@table @kbd
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@item y
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Save this buffer and ask about the rest of the buffers.
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@item n
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Don't save this buffer, but ask about the rest of the buffers.
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@item !
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Save this buffer and all the rest with no more questions.
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@c following generates acceptable underfull hbox
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@item @key{RET}
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Terminate @code{save-some-buffers} without any more saving.
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@item .
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Save this buffer, then exit @code{save-some-buffers} without even asking
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about other buffers.
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@item C-r
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View the buffer that you are currently being asked about. When you exit
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View mode, you get back to @code{save-some-buffers}, which asks the
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question again.
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@item C-h
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Display a help message about these options.
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@end table
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@kbd{C-x C-c}, the key sequence to exit Emacs, invokes
|
|
@code{save-some-buffers} and therefore asks the same questions.
|
|
|
|
@kindex M-~
|
|
@findex not-modified
|
|
If you have changed a buffer but you do not want to save the changes,
|
|
you should take some action to prevent it. Otherwise, each time you use
|
|
@kbd{C-x s} or @kbd{C-x C-c}, you are liable to save this buffer by
|
|
mistake. One thing you can do is type @kbd{M-~} (@code{not-modified}),
|
|
which clears out the indication that the buffer is modified. If you do
|
|
this, none of the save commands will believe that the buffer needs to be
|
|
saved. (@samp{~} is often used as a mathematical symbol for `not'; thus
|
|
@kbd{M-~} is `not', metafied.) You could also use
|
|
@code{set-visited-file-name} (see below) to mark the buffer as visiting
|
|
a different file name, one which is not in use for anything important.
|
|
Alternatively, you can cancel all the changes made since the file was
|
|
visited or saved, by reading the text from the file again. This is
|
|
called @dfn{reverting}. @xref{Reverting}. You could also undo all the
|
|
changes by repeating the undo command @kbd{C-x u} until you have undone
|
|
all the changes; but reverting is easier.
|
|
|
|
@findex set-visited-file-name
|
|
@kbd{M-x set-visited-file-name} alters the name of the file that the
|
|
current buffer is visiting. It reads the new file name using the
|
|
minibuffer. Then it marks the buffer as visiting that file name, and
|
|
changes the buffer name correspondingly. @code{set-visited-file-name}
|
|
does not save the buffer in the newly visited file; it just alters the
|
|
records inside Emacs in case you do save later. It also marks the
|
|
buffer as ``modified'' so that @kbd{C-x C-s} in that buffer
|
|
@emph{will} save.
|
|
|
|
@kindex C-x C-w
|
|
@findex write-file
|
|
If you wish to mark the buffer as visiting a different file and save it
|
|
right away, use @kbd{C-x C-w} (@code{write-file}). It is precisely
|
|
equivalent to @code{set-visited-file-name} followed by @kbd{C-x C-s}.
|
|
@kbd{C-x C-s} used on a buffer that is not visiting a file has the
|
|
same effect as @kbd{C-x C-w}; that is, it reads a file name, marks the
|
|
buffer as visiting that file, and saves it there. The default file name in
|
|
a buffer that is not visiting a file is made by combining the buffer name
|
|
with the buffer's default directory (@pxref{File Names}).
|
|
|
|
If the new file name implies a major mode, then @kbd{C-x C-w} switches
|
|
to that major mode, in most cases. The command
|
|
@code{set-visited-file-name} also does this. @xref{Choosing Modes}.
|
|
|
|
If Emacs is about to save a file and sees that the date of the latest
|
|
version on disk does not match what Emacs last read or wrote, Emacs
|
|
notifies you of this fact, because it probably indicates a problem caused
|
|
by simultaneous editing and requires your immediate attention.
|
|
@xref{Interlocking,, Simultaneous Editing}.
|
|
|
|
@vindex require-final-newline
|
|
If the value of the variable @code{require-final-newline} is @code{t},
|
|
Emacs silently puts a newline at the end of any file that doesn't
|
|
already end in one, every time a file is saved or written. If the value
|
|
is @code{nil}, Emacs leaves the end of the file unchanged; if it's
|
|
neither @code{nil} nor @code{t}, Emacs asks you whether to add a
|
|
newline. The default is @code{nil}.
|
|
|
|
@menu
|
|
* Backup:: How Emacs saves the old version of your file.
|
|
* Interlocking:: How Emacs protects against simultaneous editing
|
|
of one file by two users.
|
|
* Shadowing: File Shadowing.
|
|
Copying files to "shadows" automatically.
|
|
* Time Stamps:: Emacs can update time stamps on saved files.
|
|
@end menu
|
|
|
|
@node Backup
|
|
@subsection Backup Files
|
|
@cindex backup file
|
|
@vindex make-backup-files
|
|
@vindex vc-make-backup-files
|
|
|
|
On most operating systems, rewriting a file automatically destroys all
|
|
record of what the file used to contain. Thus, saving a file from Emacs
|
|
throws away the old contents of the file---or it would, except that
|
|
Emacs carefully copies the old contents to another file, called the
|
|
@dfn{backup} file, before actually saving.
|
|
|
|
For most files, the variable @code{make-backup-files} determines
|
|
whether to make backup files. On most operating systems, its default
|
|
value is @code{t}, so that Emacs does write backup files.
|
|
|
|
For files managed by a version control system (@pxref{Version
|
|
Control}), the variable @code{vc-make-backup-files} determines whether
|
|
to make backup files. By default it is @code{nil}, since backup files
|
|
are redundant when you store all the previous versions in a version
|
|
control system. @xref{General VC Options}.
|
|
|
|
@vindex backup-enable-predicate
|
|
@vindex temporary-file-directory
|
|
@vindex small-temporary-file-directory
|
|
The default value of the @code{backup-enable-predicate} variable
|
|
prevents backup files being written for files in the directories used
|
|
for temporary files, specified by @code{temporary-file-directory} or
|
|
@code{small-temporary-file-directory}.
|
|
|
|
At your option, Emacs can keep either a single backup file or a series of
|
|
numbered backup files for each file that you edit.
|
|
|
|
Emacs makes a backup for a file only the first time the file is saved
|
|
from one buffer. No matter how many times you save a file, its backup file
|
|
continues to contain the contents from before the file was visited.
|
|
Normally this means that the backup file contains the contents from before
|
|
the current editing session; however, if you kill the buffer and then visit
|
|
the file again, a new backup file will be made by the next save.
|
|
|
|
You can also explicitly request making another backup file from a
|
|
buffer even though it has already been saved at least once. If you save
|
|
the buffer with @kbd{C-u C-x C-s}, the version thus saved will be made
|
|
into a backup file if you save the buffer again. @kbd{C-u C-u C-x C-s}
|
|
saves the buffer, but first makes the previous file contents into a new
|
|
backup file. @kbd{C-u C-u C-u C-x C-s} does both things: it makes a
|
|
backup from the previous contents, and arranges to make another from the
|
|
newly saved contents if you save again.
|
|
|
|
@menu
|
|
* Names: Backup Names. How backup files are named;
|
|
choosing single or numbered backup files.
|
|
* Deletion: Backup Deletion. Emacs deletes excess numbered backups.
|
|
* Copying: Backup Copying. Backups can be made by copying or renaming.
|
|
@end menu
|
|
|
|
@node Backup Names
|
|
@subsubsection Single or Numbered Backups
|
|
|
|
If you choose to have a single backup file (this is the default),
|
|
the backup file's name is normally constructed by appending @samp{~} to the
|
|
file name being edited; thus, the backup file for @file{eval.c} would
|
|
be @file{eval.c~}.
|
|
|
|
@vindex make-backup-file-name-function
|
|
@vindex backup-directory-alist
|
|
You can change this behavior by defining the variable
|
|
@code{make-backup-file-name-function} to a suitable function.
|
|
Alternatively you can customize the variable
|
|
@code{backup-directory-alist} to specify that files matching certain
|
|
patterns should be backed up in specific directories.
|
|
|
|
A typical use is to add an element @code{("." . @var{dir})} to make
|
|
all backups in the directory with absolute name @var{dir}; Emacs
|
|
modifies the backup file names to avoid clashes between files with the
|
|
same names originating in different directories. Alternatively,
|
|
adding, say, @code{("." . ".~")} would make backups in the invisible
|
|
subdirectory @file{.~} of the original file's directory. Emacs
|
|
creates the directory, if necessary, to make the backup.
|
|
|
|
If access control stops Emacs from writing backup files under the usual
|
|
names, it writes the backup file as @file{%backup%~} in your home
|
|
directory. Only one such file can exist, so only the most recently
|
|
made such backup is available.
|
|
|
|
If you choose to have a series of numbered backup files, backup file
|
|
names contain @samp{.~}, the number, and another @samp{~} after the
|
|
original file name. Thus, the backup files of @file{eval.c} would be
|
|
called @file{eval.c.~1~}, @file{eval.c.~2~}, and so on, all the way
|
|
through names like @file{eval.c.~259~} and beyond. The variable
|
|
@code{backup-directory-alist} applies to numbered backups just as
|
|
usual.
|
|
|
|
@vindex version-control
|
|
The choice of single backup or numbered backups is controlled by the
|
|
variable @code{version-control}. Its possible values are
|
|
|
|
@table @code
|
|
@item t
|
|
Make numbered backups.
|
|
@item nil
|
|
Make numbered backups for files that have numbered backups already.
|
|
Otherwise, make single backups.
|
|
@item never
|
|
Never make numbered backups; always make single backups.
|
|
@end table
|
|
|
|
@noindent
|
|
You can set @code{version-control} locally in an individual buffer to
|
|
control the making of backups for that buffer's file. For example,
|
|
Rmail mode locally sets @code{version-control} to @code{never} to make sure
|
|
that there is only one backup for an Rmail file. @xref{Locals}.
|
|
|
|
@cindex @env{VERSION_CONTROL} environment variable
|
|
If you set the environment variable @env{VERSION_CONTROL}, to tell
|
|
various GNU utilities what to do with backup files, Emacs also obeys the
|
|
environment variable by setting the Lisp variable @code{version-control}
|
|
accordingly at startup. If the environment variable's value is @samp{t}
|
|
or @samp{numbered}, then @code{version-control} becomes @code{t}; if the
|
|
value is @samp{nil} or @samp{existing}, then @code{version-control}
|
|
becomes @code{nil}; if it is @samp{never} or @samp{simple}, then
|
|
@code{version-control} becomes @code{never}.
|
|
|
|
@node Backup Deletion
|
|
@subsubsection Automatic Deletion of Backups
|
|
|
|
To prevent excessive consumption of disk space, Emacs can delete numbered
|
|
backup versions automatically. Generally Emacs keeps the first few backups
|
|
and the latest few backups, deleting any in between. This happens every
|
|
time a new backup is made.
|
|
|
|
@vindex kept-old-versions
|
|
@vindex kept-new-versions
|
|
The two variables @code{kept-old-versions} and
|
|
@code{kept-new-versions} control this deletion. Their values are,
|
|
respectively, the number of oldest (lowest-numbered) backups to keep
|
|
and the number of newest (highest-numbered) ones to keep, each time a
|
|
new backup is made. The backups in the middle (excluding those oldest
|
|
and newest) are the excess middle versions---those backups are
|
|
deleted. These variables' values are used when it is time to delete
|
|
excess versions, just after a new backup version is made; the newly
|
|
made backup is included in the count in @code{kept-new-versions}. By
|
|
default, both variables are 2.
|
|
|
|
@vindex delete-old-versions
|
|
If @code{delete-old-versions} is non-@code{nil}, Emacs deletes the
|
|
excess backup files silently. If it is @code{nil}, the default, Emacs
|
|
asks you whether it should delete the excess backup versions.
|
|
|
|
Dired's @kbd{.} (Period) command can also be used to delete old versions.
|
|
@xref{Dired Deletion}.
|
|
|
|
@node Backup Copying
|
|
@subsubsection Copying vs.@: Renaming
|
|
|
|
Backup files can be made by copying the old file or by renaming it.
|
|
This makes a difference when the old file has multiple names (hard
|
|
links). If the old file is renamed into the backup file, then the
|
|
alternate names become names for the backup file. If the old file is
|
|
copied instead, then the alternate names remain names for the file
|
|
that you are editing, and the contents accessed by those names will be
|
|
the new contents.
|
|
|
|
The method of making a backup file may also affect the file's owner
|
|
and group. If copying is used, these do not change. If renaming is used,
|
|
you become the file's owner, and the file's group becomes the default
|
|
(different operating systems have different defaults for the group).
|
|
|
|
Having the owner change is usually a good idea, because then the owner
|
|
always shows who last edited the file. Also, the owners of the backups
|
|
show who produced those versions. Occasionally there is a file whose
|
|
owner should not change; it is a good idea for such files to contain
|
|
local variable lists to set @code{backup-by-copying-when-mismatch}
|
|
locally (@pxref{File Variables}).
|
|
|
|
@vindex backup-by-copying
|
|
@vindex backup-by-copying-when-linked
|
|
@vindex backup-by-copying-when-mismatch
|
|
@vindex backup-by-copying-when-privileged-mismatch
|
|
@cindex file ownership, and backup
|
|
@cindex backup, and user-id
|
|
The choice of renaming or copying is controlled by four variables.
|
|
Renaming is the default choice. If the variable
|
|
@code{backup-by-copying} is non-@code{nil}, copying is used. Otherwise,
|
|
if the variable @code{backup-by-copying-when-linked} is non-@code{nil},
|
|
then copying is used for files that have multiple names, but renaming
|
|
may still be used when the file being edited has only one name. If the
|
|
variable @code{backup-by-copying-when-mismatch} is non-@code{nil}, then
|
|
copying is used if renaming would cause the file's owner or group to
|
|
change. @code{backup-by-copying-when-mismatch} is @code{t} by default
|
|
if you start Emacs as the superuser. The fourth variable,
|
|
@code{backup-by-copying-when-privileged-mismatch}, gives the highest
|
|
numeric user-id for which @code{backup-by-copying-when-mismatch} will be
|
|
forced on. This is useful when low-numbered user-ids are assigned to
|
|
special system users, such as @code{root}, @code{bin}, @code{daemon},
|
|
etc., which must maintain ownership of files.
|
|
|
|
When a file is managed with a version control system (@pxref{Version
|
|
Control}), Emacs does not normally make backups in the usual way for
|
|
that file. But check-in and check-out are similar in some ways to
|
|
making backups. One unfortunate similarity is that these operations
|
|
typically break hard links, disconnecting the file name you visited from
|
|
any alternate names for the same file. This has nothing to do with
|
|
Emacs---the version control system does it.
|
|
|
|
@node Interlocking
|
|
@subsection Protection against Simultaneous Editing
|
|
|
|
@cindex file dates
|
|
@cindex simultaneous editing
|
|
Simultaneous editing occurs when two users visit the same file, both
|
|
make changes, and then both save them. If nobody were informed that
|
|
this was happening, whichever user saved first would later find that his
|
|
changes were lost.
|
|
|
|
On some systems, Emacs notices immediately when the second user starts
|
|
to change the file, and issues an immediate warning. On all systems,
|
|
Emacs checks when you save the file, and warns if you are about to
|
|
overwrite another user's changes. You can prevent loss of the other
|
|
user's work by taking the proper corrective action instead of saving the
|
|
file.
|
|
|
|
@findex ask-user-about-lock
|
|
@cindex locking files
|
|
When you make the first modification in an Emacs buffer that is
|
|
visiting a file, Emacs records that the file is @dfn{locked} by you.
|
|
(It does this by creating a symbolic link in the same directory with a
|
|
different name.) Emacs removes the lock when you save the changes. The
|
|
idea is that the file is locked whenever an Emacs buffer visiting it has
|
|
unsaved changes.
|
|
|
|
@cindex collision
|
|
If you begin to modify the buffer while the visited file is locked by
|
|
someone else, this constitutes a @dfn{collision}. When Emacs detects a
|
|
collision, it asks you what to do, by calling the Lisp function
|
|
@code{ask-user-about-lock}. You can redefine this function for the sake
|
|
of customization. The standard definition of this function asks you a
|
|
question and accepts three possible answers:
|
|
|
|
@table @kbd
|
|
@item s
|
|
Steal the lock. Whoever was already changing the file loses the lock,
|
|
and you gain the lock.
|
|
@item p
|
|
Proceed. Go ahead and edit the file despite its being locked by someone else.
|
|
@item q
|
|
Quit. This causes an error (@code{file-locked}), and the buffer
|
|
contents remain unchanged---the modification you were trying to make
|
|
does not actually take place.
|
|
@end table
|
|
|
|
Note that locking works on the basis of a file name; if a file has
|
|
multiple names, Emacs does not realize that the two names are the same file
|
|
and cannot prevent two users from editing it simultaneously under different
|
|
names. However, basing locking on names means that Emacs can interlock the
|
|
editing of new files that will not really exist until they are saved.
|
|
|
|
Some systems are not configured to allow Emacs to make locks, and
|
|
there are cases where lock files cannot be written. In these cases,
|
|
Emacs cannot detect trouble in advance, but it still can detect the
|
|
collision when you try to save a file and overwrite someone else's
|
|
changes.
|
|
|
|
If Emacs or the operating system crashes, this may leave behind lock
|
|
files which are stale, so you may occasionally get warnings about
|
|
spurious collisions. When you determine that the collision is spurious,
|
|
just use @kbd{p} to tell Emacs to go ahead anyway.
|
|
|
|
Every time Emacs saves a buffer, it first checks the last-modification
|
|
date of the existing file on disk to verify that it has not changed since the
|
|
file was last visited or saved. If the date does not match, it implies
|
|
that changes were made in the file in some other way, and these changes are
|
|
about to be lost if Emacs actually does save. To prevent this, Emacs
|
|
displays a warning message and asks for confirmation before saving.
|
|
Occasionally you will know why the file was changed and know that it does
|
|
not matter; then you can answer @kbd{yes} and proceed. Otherwise, you should
|
|
cancel the save with @kbd{C-g} and investigate the situation.
|
|
|
|
The first thing you should do when notified that simultaneous editing
|
|
has already taken place is to list the directory with @kbd{C-u C-x C-d}
|
|
(@pxref{Directories}). This shows the file's current author. You
|
|
should attempt to contact him to warn him not to continue editing.
|
|
Often the next step is to save the contents of your Emacs buffer under a
|
|
different name, and use @code{diff} to compare the two files.@refill
|
|
|
|
@node File Shadowing
|
|
@subsection Shadowing Files
|
|
@cindex shadow files
|
|
@cindex file shadows
|
|
|
|
@table @kbd
|
|
@item M-x shadow-initialize
|
|
Set up file shadowing.
|
|
@item M-x shadow-define-literal-group
|
|
Declare a single file to be shared between sites.
|
|
@item M-x shadow-define-regexp-group
|
|
Make all files that match each of a group of files be shared between hosts.
|
|
@item M-x shadow-define-cluster @key{RET} @var{name} @key{RET}
|
|
Define a shadow file cluster @var{name}.
|
|
@item M-x shadow-copy-files
|
|
Copy all pending shadow files.
|
|
@item M-x shadow-cancel
|
|
Cancel the instruction to shadow some files.
|
|
@end table
|
|
|
|
You can arrange to keep identical @dfn{shadow} copies of certain files
|
|
in more than one place---possibly on different machines. To do this,
|
|
first you must set up a @dfn{shadow file group}, which is a set of
|
|
identically-named files shared between a list of sites. The file
|
|
group is permanent and applies to further Emacs sessions as well as
|
|
the current one. Once the group is set up, every time you exit Emacs,
|
|
it will copy the file you edited to the other files in its group. You
|
|
can also do the copying without exiting Emacs, by typing @kbd{M-x
|
|
shadow-copy-files}.
|
|
|
|
To set up a shadow file group, use @kbd{M-x
|
|
shadow-define-literal-group} or @kbd{M-x shadow-define-regexp-group}.
|
|
See their documentation strings for further information.
|
|
|
|
Before copying a file to its shadows, Emacs asks for confirmation.
|
|
You can answer ``no'' to bypass copying of this file, this time. If
|
|
you want to cancel the shadowing permanently for a certain file, use
|
|
@kbd{M-x shadow-cancel} to eliminate or change the shadow file group.
|
|
|
|
A @dfn{shadow cluster} is a group of hosts that share directories, so
|
|
that copying to or from one of them is sufficient to update the file
|
|
on all of them. Each shadow cluster has a name, and specifies the
|
|
network address of a primary host (the one we copy files to), and a
|
|
regular expression that matches the host names of all the other hosts
|
|
in the cluster. You can define a shadow cluster with @kbd{M-x
|
|
shadow-define-cluster}.
|
|
|
|
@node Time Stamps
|
|
@subsection Updating Time Stamps Automatically
|
|
@findex time-stamp
|
|
@cindex time stamps
|
|
@cindex modification dates
|
|
@cindex locale, date format
|
|
|
|
You can arrange to put a time stamp in a file, so that it will be updated
|
|
automatically each time you edit and save the file. The time stamp
|
|
has to be in the first eight lines of the file, and you should
|
|
insert it like this:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
Time-stamp: <>
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
@noindent
|
|
or like this:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
Time-stamp: ""
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
Then add the hook function @code{time-stamp} to the hook
|
|
@code{write-file-functions}; that hook function will automatically update
|
|
the time stamp, inserting the current date and time when you save the
|
|
file. You can also use the command @kbd{M-x time-stamp} to update the
|
|
time stamp manually. For other customizations, see the Custom group
|
|
@code{time-stamp}. Note that non-numeric fields in the time stamp are
|
|
formatted according to your locale setting (@pxref{Environment}).
|
|
|
|
@node Reverting
|
|
@section Reverting a Buffer
|
|
@findex revert-buffer
|
|
@cindex drastic changes
|
|
@cindex reread a file
|
|
|
|
If you have made extensive changes to a file and then change your mind
|
|
about them, you can get rid of them by reading in the previous version
|
|
of the file. To do this, use @kbd{M-x revert-buffer}, which operates on
|
|
the current buffer. Since reverting a buffer unintentionally could lose
|
|
a lot of work, you must confirm this command with @kbd{yes}.
|
|
|
|
@code{revert-buffer} keeps point at the same distance (measured in
|
|
characters) from the beginning of the file. If the file was edited only
|
|
slightly, you will be at approximately the same piece of text after
|
|
reverting as before. If you have made drastic changes, the same value of
|
|
point in the old file may address a totally different piece of text.
|
|
|
|
Reverting marks the buffer as ``not modified'' until another change is
|
|
made.
|
|
|
|
Some kinds of buffers whose contents reflect data bases other than files,
|
|
such as Dired buffers, can also be reverted. For them, reverting means
|
|
recalculating their contents from the appropriate data base. Buffers
|
|
created explicitly with @kbd{C-x b} cannot be reverted; @code{revert-buffer}
|
|
reports an error when asked to do so.
|
|
|
|
@vindex revert-without-query
|
|
When you edit a file that changes automatically and frequently---for
|
|
example, a log of output from a process that continues to run---it may be
|
|
useful for Emacs to revert the file without querying you, whenever you
|
|
visit the file again with @kbd{C-x C-f}.
|
|
|
|
To request this behavior, set the variable @code{revert-without-query}
|
|
to a list of regular expressions. When a file name matches one of these
|
|
regular expressions, @code{find-file} and @code{revert-buffer} will
|
|
revert it automatically if it has changed---provided the buffer itself
|
|
is not modified. (If you have edited the text, it would be wrong to
|
|
discard your changes.)
|
|
|
|
@cindex Global Auto-Revert mode
|
|
@cindex mode, Global Auto-Revert
|
|
@cindex Auto-Revert mode
|
|
@cindex mode, Auto-Revert
|
|
@findex global-auto-revert-mode
|
|
@findex auto-revert-mode
|
|
@vindex auto-revert-interval
|
|
You may find it useful to have Emacs revert files automatically when
|
|
they change. Two minor modes are available to do this. In Global
|
|
Auto-Revert mode, Emacs periodically checks all file buffers and
|
|
reverts any when the corresponding file has changed. The local
|
|
variant, Auto-Revert mode, applies only to buffers in which it was
|
|
activated. Checking the files is done at intervals determined by the
|
|
variable @code{auto-revert-interval}.
|
|
|
|
@node Auto Save
|
|
@section Auto-Saving: Protection Against Disasters
|
|
@cindex Auto Save mode
|
|
@cindex mode, Auto Save
|
|
@cindex crashes
|
|
|
|
Emacs saves all the visited files from time to time (based on counting
|
|
your keystrokes) without being asked. This is called @dfn{auto-saving}.
|
|
It prevents you from losing more than a limited amount of work if the
|
|
system crashes.
|
|
|
|
When Emacs determines that it is time for auto-saving, each buffer is
|
|
considered, and is auto-saved if auto-saving is turned on for it and it
|
|
has been changed since the last time it was auto-saved. The message
|
|
@samp{Auto-saving...} is displayed in the echo area during auto-saving,
|
|
if any files are actually auto-saved. Errors occurring during
|
|
auto-saving are caught so that they do not interfere with the execution
|
|
of commands you have been typing.
|
|
|
|
@menu
|
|
* Files: Auto Save Files. The file where auto-saved changes are
|
|
actually made until you save the file.
|
|
* Control: Auto Save Control. Controlling when and how often to auto-save.
|
|
* Recover:: Recovering text from auto-save files.
|
|
@end menu
|
|
|
|
@node Auto Save Files
|
|
@subsection Auto-Save Files
|
|
|
|
Auto-saving does not normally save in the files that you visited, because
|
|
it can be very undesirable to save a program that is in an inconsistent
|
|
state when you have made half of a planned change. Instead, auto-saving
|
|
is done in a different file called the @dfn{auto-save file}, and the
|
|
visited file is changed only when you request saving explicitly (such as
|
|
with @kbd{C-x C-s}).
|
|
|
|
Normally, the auto-save file name is made by appending @samp{#} to the
|
|
front and rear of the visited file name. Thus, a buffer visiting file
|
|
@file{foo.c} is auto-saved in a file @file{#foo.c#}. Most buffers that
|
|
are not visiting files are auto-saved only if you request it explicitly;
|
|
when they are auto-saved, the auto-save file name is made by appending
|
|
@samp{#} to the front and rear of buffer name, then
|
|
adding digits and letters at the end for uniqueness. For
|
|
example, the @samp{*mail*} buffer in which you compose messages to be
|
|
sent might auto-saved in a file named @file{#*mail*#704juu}. Auto-save file
|
|
names are made this way unless you reprogram parts of Emacs to do
|
|
something different (the functions @code{make-auto-save-file-name} and
|
|
@code{auto-save-file-name-p}). The file name to be used for auto-saving
|
|
in a buffer is calculated when auto-saving is turned on in that buffer.
|
|
|
|
@cindex auto-save for remote files
|
|
@vindex auto-save-file-name-transforms
|
|
The variable @code{auto-save-file-name-transforms} allows a degree
|
|
of control over the auto-save file name. It lets you specify a series
|
|
of regular expressions and replacements to transform the auto save
|
|
file name. The default value puts the auto-save files for remote
|
|
files (@pxref{Remote Files}) into the temporary file directory on the
|
|
local machine.
|
|
|
|
When you delete a substantial part of the text in a large buffer, auto
|
|
save turns off temporarily in that buffer. This is because if you
|
|
deleted the text unintentionally, you might find the auto-save file more
|
|
useful if it contains the deleted text. To reenable auto-saving after
|
|
this happens, save the buffer with @kbd{C-x C-s}, or use @kbd{C-u 1 M-x
|
|
auto-save}.
|
|
|
|
@vindex auto-save-visited-file-name
|
|
If you want auto-saving to be done in the visited file rather than
|
|
in a separate auto-save file, set the variable
|
|
@code{auto-save-visited-file-name} to a non-@code{nil} value. In this
|
|
mode, there is no real difference between auto-saving and explicit
|
|
saving.
|
|
|
|
@vindex delete-auto-save-files
|
|
A buffer's auto-save file is deleted when you save the buffer in its
|
|
visited file. To inhibit this, set the variable @code{delete-auto-save-files}
|
|
to @code{nil}. Changing the visited file name with @kbd{C-x C-w} or
|
|
@code{set-visited-file-name} renames any auto-save file to go with
|
|
the new visited name.
|
|
|
|
@node Auto Save Control
|
|
@subsection Controlling Auto-Saving
|
|
|
|
@vindex auto-save-default
|
|
@findex auto-save-mode
|
|
Each time you visit a file, auto-saving is turned on for that file's
|
|
buffer if the variable @code{auto-save-default} is non-@code{nil} (but not
|
|
in batch mode; @pxref{Entering Emacs}). The default for this variable is
|
|
@code{t}, so auto-saving is the usual practice for file-visiting buffers.
|
|
Auto-saving can be turned on or off for any existing buffer with the
|
|
command @kbd{M-x auto-save-mode}. Like other minor mode commands, @kbd{M-x
|
|
auto-save-mode} turns auto-saving on with a positive argument, off with a
|
|
zero or negative argument; with no argument, it toggles.
|
|
|
|
@vindex auto-save-interval
|
|
Emacs does auto-saving periodically based on counting how many characters
|
|
you have typed since the last time auto-saving was done. The variable
|
|
@code{auto-save-interval} specifies how many characters there are between
|
|
auto-saves. By default, it is 300. Emacs doesn't accept values that are
|
|
too small: if you customize @code{auto-save-interval} to a value less
|
|
than 20, Emacs will behave as if the value is 20.
|
|
|
|
@vindex auto-save-timeout
|
|
Auto-saving also takes place when you stop typing for a while. The
|
|
variable @code{auto-save-timeout} says how many seconds Emacs should
|
|
wait before it does an auto save (and perhaps also a garbage
|
|
collection). (The actual time period is longer if the current buffer is
|
|
long; this is a heuristic which aims to keep out of your way when you
|
|
are editing long buffers, in which auto-save takes an appreciable amount
|
|
of time.) Auto-saving during idle periods accomplishes two things:
|
|
first, it makes sure all your work is saved if you go away from the
|
|
terminal for a while; second, it may avoid some auto-saving while you
|
|
are actually typing.
|
|
|
|
Emacs also does auto-saving whenever it gets a fatal error. This
|
|
includes killing the Emacs job with a shell command such as @samp{kill
|
|
%emacs}, or disconnecting a phone line or network connection.
|
|
|
|
@findex do-auto-save
|
|
You can request an auto-save explicitly with the command @kbd{M-x
|
|
do-auto-save}.
|
|
|
|
@node Recover
|
|
@subsection Recovering Data from Auto-Saves
|
|
|
|
@findex recover-file
|
|
You can use the contents of an auto-save file to recover from a loss
|
|
of data with the command @kbd{M-x recover-file @key{RET} @var{file}
|
|
@key{RET}}. This visits @var{file} and then (after your confirmation)
|
|
restores the contents from its auto-save file @file{#@var{file}#}.
|
|
You can then save with @kbd{C-x C-s} to put the recovered text into
|
|
@var{file} itself. For example, to recover file @file{foo.c} from its
|
|
auto-save file @file{#foo.c#}, do:@refill
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
M-x recover-file @key{RET} foo.c @key{RET}
|
|
yes @key{RET}
|
|
C-x C-s
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
Before asking for confirmation, @kbd{M-x recover-file} displays a
|
|
directory listing describing the specified file and the auto-save file,
|
|
so you can compare their sizes and dates. If the auto-save file
|
|
is older, @kbd{M-x recover-file} does not offer to read it.
|
|
|
|
@findex recover-session
|
|
If Emacs or the computer crashes, you can recover all the files you
|
|
were editing from their auto save files with the command @kbd{M-x
|
|
recover-session}. This first shows you a list of recorded interrupted
|
|
sessions. Move point to the one you choose, and type @kbd{C-c C-c}.
|
|
|
|
Then @code{recover-session} asks about each of the files that were
|
|
being edited during that session, asking whether to recover that file.
|
|
If you answer @kbd{y}, it calls @code{recover-file}, which works in its
|
|
normal fashion. It shows the dates of the original file and its
|
|
auto-save file, and asks once again whether to recover that file.
|
|
|
|
When @code{recover-session} is done, the files you've chosen to
|
|
recover are present in Emacs buffers. You should then save them. Only
|
|
this---saving them---updates the files themselves.
|
|
|
|
@vindex auto-save-list-file-prefix
|
|
Emacs records interrupted sessions for later recovery in files named
|
|
@file{~/.emacs.d/auto-save-list/.saves-@var{pid}-@var{hostname}}. All
|
|
of this name except @file{@var{pid}-@var{hostname}} comes from the
|
|
value of @code{auto-save-list-file-prefix}. You can record sessions
|
|
in a different place by customizing that variable. If you set
|
|
@code{auto-save-list-file-prefix} to @code{nil} in your @file{.emacs}
|
|
file, sessions are not recorded for recovery.
|
|
|
|
@node File Aliases
|
|
@section File Name Aliases
|
|
|
|
Symbolic links and hard links both make it possible for several file
|
|
names to refer to the same file. Hard links are alternate names that
|
|
refer directly to the file; all the names are equally valid, and no one
|
|
of them is preferred. By contrast, a symbolic link is a kind of defined
|
|
alias: when @file{foo} is a symbolic link to @file{bar}, you can use
|
|
either name to refer to the file, but @file{bar} is the real name, while
|
|
@file{foo} is just an alias. More complex cases occur when symbolic
|
|
links point to directories.
|
|
|
|
If you visit two names for the same file, normally Emacs makes
|
|
two different buffers, but it warns you about the situation.
|
|
|
|
@vindex find-file-existing-other-name
|
|
@vindex find-file-suppress-same-file-warnings
|
|
Normally, if you visit a file which Emacs is already visiting under
|
|
a different name, Emacs displays a message in the echo area and uses
|
|
the existing buffer visiting that file. This can happen on systems
|
|
that support symbolic links, or if you use a long file name on a
|
|
system that truncates long file names. You can suppress the message by
|
|
setting the variable @code{find-file-suppress-same-file-warnings} to a
|
|
non-@code{nil} value. You can disable this feature entirely by setting
|
|
the variable @code{find-file-existing-other-name} to @code{nil}: then
|
|
if you visit the same file under two different names, you get a separate
|
|
buffer for each file name.
|
|
|
|
@vindex find-file-visit-truename
|
|
@cindex truenames of files
|
|
@cindex file truenames
|
|
If the variable @code{find-file-visit-truename} is non-@code{nil},
|
|
then the file name recorded for a buffer is the file's @dfn{truename}
|
|
(made by replacing all symbolic links with their target names), rather
|
|
than the name you specify. Setting @code{find-file-visit-truename} also
|
|
implies the effect of @code{find-file-existing-other-name}.
|
|
|
|
@node Version Control
|
|
@section Version Control
|
|
@cindex version control
|
|
|
|
@dfn{Version control systems} are packages that can record multiple
|
|
versions of a source file, usually storing the unchanged parts of the
|
|
file just once. Version control systems also record history information
|
|
such as the creation time of each version, who created it, and a
|
|
description of what was changed in that version.
|
|
|
|
The Emacs version control interface is called VC. Its commands work
|
|
with three version control systems---RCS, CVS, and SCCS. The GNU
|
|
project recommends RCS and CVS, which are free software and available
|
|
from the Free Software Foundation. We also have free software to
|
|
replace SCCS, known as CSSC; if you are using SCCS and don't want to
|
|
make the incompatible change to RCS or CVS, you can switch to CSSC.
|
|
|
|
@menu
|
|
* Introduction to VC:: How version control works in general.
|
|
* VC Mode Line:: How the mode line shows version control status.
|
|
* Basic VC Editing:: How to edit a file under version control.
|
|
* Old Versions:: Examining and comparing old versions.
|
|
* Secondary VC Commands:: The commands used a little less frequently.
|
|
* Branches:: Multiple lines of development.
|
|
* Remote Repositories:: Efficient access to remote CVS servers.
|
|
* Snapshots:: Sets of file versions treated as a unit.
|
|
* Miscellaneous VC:: Various other commands and features of VC.
|
|
* Customizing VC:: Variables that change VC's behavior.
|
|
@end menu
|
|
|
|
@node Introduction to VC
|
|
@subsection Introduction to Version Control
|
|
|
|
VC allows you to use a version control system from within Emacs,
|
|
integrating the version control operations smoothly with editing. VC
|
|
provides a uniform interface to version control, so that regardless of
|
|
which version control system is in use, you can use it the same way.
|
|
|
|
This section provides a general overview of version control, and
|
|
describes the version control systems that VC supports. You can skip
|
|
this section if you are already familiar with the version control system
|
|
you want to use.
|
|
|
|
@menu
|
|
* Version Systems:: Supported version control back-end systems.
|
|
* VC Concepts:: Words and concepts related to version control.
|
|
* Types of Log File:: The per-file VC log in contrast to the ChangeLog.
|
|
@end menu
|
|
|
|
@node Version Systems
|
|
@subsubsection Supported Version Control Systems
|
|
|
|
@cindex RCS
|
|
@cindex back end (version control)
|
|
VC currently works with three different version control systems or
|
|
``back ends'': RCS, CVS, and SCCS.
|
|
|
|
RCS is a free version control system that is available from the Free
|
|
Software Foundation. It is perhaps the most mature of the supported
|
|
back ends, and the VC commands are conceptually closest to RCS. Almost
|
|
everything you can do with RCS can be done through VC.
|
|
|
|
@cindex CVS
|
|
CVS is built on top of RCS, and extends the features of RCS, allowing
|
|
for more sophisticated release management, and concurrent multi-user
|
|
development. VC supports basic editing operations under CVS, but for
|
|
some less common tasks you still need to call CVS from the command line.
|
|
Note also that before using CVS you must set up a repository, which is a
|
|
subject too complex to treat here.
|
|
|
|
@cindex SCCS
|
|
SCCS is a proprietary but widely used version control system. In
|
|
terms of capabilities, it is the weakest of the three that VC
|
|
supports. VC compensates for certain features missing in SCCS
|
|
(snapshots, for example) by implementing them itself, but some other VC
|
|
features, such as multiple branches, are not available with SCCS. You
|
|
should use SCCS only if for some reason you cannot use RCS.
|
|
|
|
@node VC Concepts
|
|
@subsubsection Concepts of Version Control
|
|
|
|
@cindex master file
|
|
@cindex registered file
|
|
When a file is under version control, we also say that it is
|
|
@dfn{registered} in the version control system. Each registered file
|
|
has a corresponding @dfn{master file} which represents the file's
|
|
present state plus its change history---enough to reconstruct the
|
|
current version or any earlier version. Usually the master file also
|
|
records a @dfn{log entry} for each version, describing in words what was
|
|
changed in that version.
|
|
|
|
@cindex work file
|
|
@cindex checking out files
|
|
The file that is maintained under version control is sometimes called
|
|
the @dfn{work file} corresponding to its master file. You edit the work
|
|
file and make changes in it, as you would with an ordinary file. (With
|
|
SCCS and RCS, you must @dfn{lock} the file before you start to edit it.)
|
|
After you are done with a set of changes, you @dfn{check the file in},
|
|
which records the changes in the master file, along with a log entry for
|
|
them.
|
|
|
|
With CVS, there are usually multiple work files corresponding to a
|
|
single master file---often each user has his own copy. It is also
|
|
possible to use RCS in this way, but this is not the usual way to use
|
|
RCS.
|
|
|
|
@cindex locking and version control
|
|
A version control system typically has some mechanism to coordinate
|
|
between users who want to change the same file. One method is
|
|
@dfn{locking} (analogous to the locking that Emacs uses to detect
|
|
simultaneous editing of a file, but distinct from it). The other method
|
|
is to merge your changes with other people's changes when you check them
|
|
in.
|
|
|
|
With version control locking, work files are normally read-only so
|
|
that you cannot change them. You ask the version control system to make
|
|
a work file writable for you by locking it; only one user can do
|
|
this at any given time. When you check in your changes, that unlocks
|
|
the file, making the work file read-only again. This allows other users
|
|
to lock the file to make further changes. SCCS always uses locking, and
|
|
RCS normally does.
|
|
|
|
The other alternative for RCS is to let each user modify the work file
|
|
at any time. In this mode, locking is not required, but it is
|
|
permitted; check-in is still the way to record a new version.
|
|
|
|
CVS normally allows each user to modify his own copy of the work file
|
|
at any time, but requires merging with changes from other users at
|
|
check-in time. However, CVS can also be set up to require locking.
|
|
(@pxref{CVS Options}).
|
|
|
|
@node Types of Log File
|
|
@subsubsection Types of Log File
|
|
@cindex types of log file
|
|
@cindex log File, types of
|
|
@cindex version control log
|
|
|
|
GNU projects under a revision control system generally possess
|
|
@emph{two} types of log for changes. One is the per-file log
|
|
maintained by the revision control system: each time you check in a
|
|
change, you must fill out a @dfn{log entry} for the change (@pxref{Log
|
|
Buffer}). This kind of log is called the @dfn{version control log},
|
|
also the @dfn{revision control log}, @dfn{RCS log}, or @dfn{CVS log}.
|
|
|
|
The other kind of log is the change log file, typically a file called
|
|
@file{ChangeLog}. It provides a chronological record of all changes
|
|
to a large portion of a program---one directory and its
|
|
subdirectories. A small program would use one @file{ChangeLog} file;
|
|
a large program may well merit a @file{ChangeLog} file in each major
|
|
directory. @xref{Change Log}.
|
|
|
|
When you use version control, you can use just the per-file log if you
|
|
wish, or you can use both kinds of logs. When you use both, you
|
|
typically want to write just one entry for each change. You can write
|
|
the entry in @file{ChangeLog}, then copy it to the log buffer when you
|
|
check in the change. Or you can write the entry in the log buffer
|
|
while checking in the change, and later use the @kbd{C-x v a} command
|
|
to copy it to @file{ChangeLog} (@pxref{Change Logs and VC}).
|
|
|
|
@node VC Mode Line
|
|
@subsection Version Control and the Mode Line
|
|
|
|
When you visit a file that is under version control, Emacs indicates
|
|
this on the mode line. For example, @samp{RCS-1.3} says that RCS is
|
|
used for that file, and the current version is 1.3.
|
|
|
|
The character between the back-end name and the version number
|
|
indicates the version control status of the file. @samp{-} means that
|
|
the work file is not locked (if locking is in use), or not modified (if
|
|
locking is not in use). @samp{:} indicates that the file is locked, or
|
|
that it is modified. If the file is locked by some other user (for
|
|
instance, @samp{jim}), that is displayed as @samp{RCS:jim:1.3}.
|
|
|
|
@node Basic VC Editing
|
|
@subsection Basic Editing under Version Control
|
|
|
|
The principal VC command is an all-purpose command that performs
|
|
either locking or check-in, depending on the situation.
|
|
|
|
@table @kbd
|
|
@item C-x C-q
|
|
@itemx C-x v v
|
|
Perform the next logical version control operation on this file.
|
|
@end table
|
|
|
|
@findex vc-next-action
|
|
@findex vc-toggle-read-only
|
|
@kindex C-x v v
|
|
@kindex C-x C-q @r{(Version Control)}
|
|
Strictly speaking, the command for this job is @code{vc-next-action},
|
|
bound to @kbd{C-x v v}. However, the normal meaning of @kbd{C-x C-q} is
|
|
to make a read-only buffer writable, or vice versa; we have extended it
|
|
to do the same job properly for files managed by version control, by
|
|
performing the appropriate version control operations. When you type
|
|
@kbd{C-x C-q} on a registered file, it acts like @kbd{C-x v v}.
|
|
|
|
The precise action of this command depends on the state of the file,
|
|
and whether the version control system uses locking or not. SCCS and
|
|
RCS normally use locking; CVS normally does not use locking.
|
|
|
|
@menu
|
|
* VC with Locking:: RCS in its default mode, SCCS, and optionally CVS.
|
|
* Without Locking:: Without locking: default mode for CVS.
|
|
* Advanced C-x C-q:: Advanced features available with a prefix argument.
|
|
* Log Buffer:: Features available in log entry buffers.
|
|
@end menu
|
|
|
|
@node VC with Locking
|
|
@subsubsection Basic Version Control with Locking
|
|
|
|
If locking is used for the file (as with SCCS, and RCS in its default
|
|
mode), @kbd{C-x C-q} can either lock a file or check it in:
|
|
|
|
@itemize @bullet
|
|
@item
|
|
If the file is not locked, @kbd{C-x C-q} locks it, and
|
|
makes it writable so that you can change it.
|
|
|
|
@item
|
|
If the file is locked by you, and contains changes, @kbd{C-x C-q} checks
|
|
in the changes. In order to do this, it first reads the log entry
|
|
for the new version. @xref{Log Buffer}.
|
|
|
|
@item
|
|
If the file is locked by you, but you have not changed it since you
|
|
locked it, @kbd{C-x C-q} releases the lock and makes the file read-only
|
|
again.
|
|
|
|
@item
|
|
If the file is locked by some other user, @kbd{C-x C-q} asks you whether
|
|
you want to ``steal the lock'' from that user. If you say yes, the file
|
|
becomes locked by you, but a message is sent to the person who had
|
|
formerly locked the file, to inform him of what has happened.
|
|
@end itemize
|
|
|
|
These rules also apply when you use CVS in locking mode, except
|
|
that there is no such thing as stealing a lock.
|
|
|
|
@node Without Locking
|
|
@subsubsection Basic Version Control without Locking
|
|
|
|
When there is no locking---the default for CVS---work files are always
|
|
writable; you do not need to do anything before you begin to edit a
|
|
file. The status indicator on the mode line is @samp{-} if the file is
|
|
unmodified; it flips to @samp{:} as soon as you save any changes in the
|
|
work file.
|
|
|
|
Here is what @kbd{C-x C-q} does when using CVS:
|
|
|
|
@itemize @bullet
|
|
@item
|
|
If some other user has checked in changes into the master file, Emacs
|
|
asks you whether you want to merge those changes into your own work
|
|
file. You must do this before you can check in your own changes. (To
|
|
pick up any recent changes from the master file @emph{without} trying
|
|
to commit your own changes, type @kbd{C-x v m @key{RET}}.)
|
|
@xref{Merging}.
|
|
|
|
@item
|
|
If there are no new changes in the master file, but you have made
|
|
modifications in your work file, @kbd{C-x C-q} checks in your changes.
|
|
In order to do this, it first reads the log entry for the new version.
|
|
@xref{Log Buffer}.
|
|
|
|
@item
|
|
If the file is not modified, the @kbd{C-x C-q} does nothing.
|
|
@end itemize
|
|
|
|
These rules also apply when you use RCS in the mode that does not
|
|
require locking, except that automatic merging of changes from the
|
|
master file is not implemented. Unfortunately, this means that nothing
|
|
informs you if another user has checked in changes in the same file
|
|
since you began editing it, and when this happens, his changes will be
|
|
effectively removed when you check in your version (though they will
|
|
remain in the master file, so they will not be entirely lost). You must
|
|
therefore verify the current version is unchanged, before you check in your
|
|
changes. We hope to eliminate this risk and provide automatic merging
|
|
with RCS in a future Emacs version.
|
|
|
|
In addition, locking is possible with RCS even in this mode, although
|
|
it is not required; @kbd{C-x C-q} with an unmodified file locks the
|
|
file, just as it does with RCS in its normal (locking) mode.
|
|
|
|
@node Advanced C-x C-q
|
|
@subsubsection Advanced Control in @kbd{C-x C-q}
|
|
|
|
@cindex version number to check in/out
|
|
When you give a prefix argument to @code{vc-next-action} (@kbd{C-u
|
|
C-x C-q}), it still performs the next logical version control
|
|
operation, but accepts additional arguments to specify precisely how
|
|
to do the operation.
|
|
|
|
@itemize @bullet
|
|
@item
|
|
If the file is modified (or locked), you can specify the version
|
|
number to use for the new version that you check in. This is one way
|
|
to create a new branch (@pxref{Branches}).
|
|
|
|
@item
|
|
If the file is not modified (and unlocked), you can specify the
|
|
version to select; this lets you start working from an older version,
|
|
or on another branch. If you do not enter any version, that takes you
|
|
to the highest version on the current branch; therefore @kbd{C-u C-x
|
|
C-q @key{RET}} is a convenient way to get the latest version of a file from
|
|
the repository.
|
|
|
|
@item
|
|
@cindex specific version control system
|
|
Instead of the version number, you can also specify the name of a
|
|
version control system. This is useful when one file is being managed
|
|
with two version control systems at the same time (@pxref{Local
|
|
Version Control}).
|
|
@end itemize
|
|
|
|
@node Log Buffer
|
|
@subsubsection Features of the Log Entry Buffer
|
|
|
|
When you check in changes, @kbd{C-x C-q} first reads a log entry. It
|
|
pops up a buffer called @samp{*VC-Log*} for you to enter the log entry.
|
|
When you are finished, type @kbd{C-c C-c} in the @samp{*VC-Log*} buffer.
|
|
That is when check-in really happens.
|
|
|
|
To abort check-in, just @strong{don't} type @kbd{C-c C-c} in that
|
|
buffer. You can switch buffers and do other editing. As long as you
|
|
don't try to check in another file, the entry you were editing remains
|
|
in the @samp{*VC-Log*} buffer, and you can go back to that buffer at any
|
|
time to complete the check-in.
|
|
|
|
If you change several source files for the same reason, it is often
|
|
convenient to specify the same log entry for many of the files. To do
|
|
this, use the history of previous log entries. The commands @kbd{M-n},
|
|
@kbd{M-p}, @kbd{M-s} and @kbd{M-r} for doing this work just like the
|
|
minibuffer history commands (except that these versions are used outside
|
|
the minibuffer).
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-log-mode-hook
|
|
Each time you check in a file, the log entry buffer is put into VC Log
|
|
mode, which involves running two hooks: @code{text-mode-hook} and
|
|
@code{vc-log-mode-hook}. @xref{Hooks}.
|
|
|
|
@node Old Versions
|
|
@subsection Examining And Comparing Old Versions
|
|
|
|
One of the convenient features of version control is the ability
|
|
to examine any version of a file, or compare two versions.
|
|
|
|
@table @kbd
|
|
@item C-x v ~ @var{version} @key{RET}
|
|
Examine version @var{version} of the visited file, in a buffer of its
|
|
own.
|
|
|
|
@item C-x v =
|
|
Compare the current buffer contents with the latest checked-in version
|
|
of the file.
|
|
|
|
@item C-u C-x v = @var{file} @key{RET} @var{oldvers} @key{RET} @var{newvers} @key{RET}
|
|
Compare the specified two versions of @var{file}.
|
|
|
|
@item C-x v g
|
|
Display the result of the CVS annotate command using colors.
|
|
@end table
|
|
|
|
@findex vc-version-other-window
|
|
@kindex C-x v ~
|
|
To examine an old version in its entirety, visit the file and then type
|
|
@kbd{C-x v ~ @var{version} @key{RET}} (@code{vc-version-other-window}).
|
|
This puts the text of version @var{version} in a file named
|
|
@file{@var{filename}.~@var{version}~}, and visits it in its own buffer
|
|
in a separate window. (In RCS, you can also select an old version
|
|
and create a branch from it. @xref{Branches}.)
|
|
|
|
@findex vc-diff
|
|
@kindex C-x v =
|
|
It is usually more convenient to compare two versions of the file,
|
|
with the command @kbd{C-x v =} (@code{vc-diff}). Plain @kbd{C-x v =}
|
|
compares the current buffer contents (saving them in the file if
|
|
necessary) with the last checked-in version of the file. @kbd{C-u C-x
|
|
v =}, with a numeric argument, reads a file name and two version
|
|
numbers, then compares those versions of the specified file. Both
|
|
forms display the output in a special buffer in another window.
|
|
|
|
You can specify a checked-in version by its number; an empty input
|
|
specifies the current contents of the work file (which may be different
|
|
from all the checked-in versions). You can also specify a snapshot name
|
|
(@pxref{Snapshots}) instead of one or both version numbers.
|
|
|
|
If you supply a directory name instead of the name of a registered
|
|
file, this command compares the two specified versions of all registered
|
|
files in that directory and its subdirectories.
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-diff-switches
|
|
@vindex vc-rcs-diff-switches
|
|
@kbd{C-x v =} works by running a variant of the @code{diff} utility
|
|
designed to work with the version control system in use. When you
|
|
invoke @code{diff} this way, in addition to the options specified by
|
|
@code{diff-switches} (@pxref{Comparing Files}), it receives those
|
|
specified by @code{vc-diff-switches}, plus those specified for the
|
|
specific back end by @code{vc-@var{backend}-diff-switches}. For
|
|
instance, when the version control back end is RCS, @code{diff} uses
|
|
the options in @code{vc-rcs-diff-switches}. The
|
|
@samp{vc@dots{}diff-switches} variables are @code{nil} by default.
|
|
|
|
Unlike the @kbd{M-x diff} command, @kbd{C-x v =} does not try to
|
|
locate the changes in the old and new versions. This is because
|
|
normally one or both versions do not exist as files when you compare
|
|
them; they exist only in the records of the master file.
|
|
@xref{Comparing Files}, for more information about @kbd{M-x diff}.
|
|
|
|
@findex vc-annotate
|
|
@kindex C-x v g
|
|
For CVS-controlled files, you can display the result of the CVS
|
|
annotate command, using colors to enhance the visual appearance. Use
|
|
the command @kbd{M-x vc-annotate} to do this. It creates a new buffer
|
|
to display file's text, colored to show how old each part is. Text
|
|
colored red is new, blue means old, and intermediate colors indicate
|
|
intermediate ages. By default, the time scale is 360 days, so that
|
|
everything more than one year old is shown in blue.
|
|
|
|
When you give a prefix argument to this command, it uses the
|
|
minibuffer to read two arguments: which version number to display and
|
|
annotate (instead of the current file contents), and a stretch factor
|
|
for the time scale. A stretch factor of 0.1 means that the color
|
|
range from red to blue spans the past 36 days instead of 360 days. A
|
|
stretch factor greater than 1 means the color range spans more than a
|
|
year.
|
|
|
|
@node Secondary VC Commands
|
|
@subsection The Secondary Commands of VC
|
|
|
|
This section explains the secondary commands of VC; those that you might
|
|
use once a day.
|
|
|
|
@menu
|
|
* Registering:: Putting a file under version control.
|
|
* VC Status:: Viewing the VC status of files.
|
|
* VC Undo:: Cancelling changes before or after check-in.
|
|
* VC Dired Mode:: Listing files managed by version control.
|
|
* VC Dired Commands:: Commands to use in a VC Dired buffer.
|
|
@end menu
|
|
|
|
@node Registering
|
|
@subsubsection Registering a File for Version Control
|
|
|
|
@kindex C-x v i
|
|
@findex vc-register
|
|
You can put any file under version control by simply visiting it, and
|
|
then typing @w{@kbd{C-x v i}} (@code{vc-register}).
|
|
|
|
@table @kbd
|
|
@item C-x v i
|
|
Register the visited file for version control.
|
|
@end table
|
|
|
|
To register the file, Emacs must choose which version control system
|
|
to use for it. If the file's directory already contains files
|
|
registered in a version control system, Emacs uses that system. If
|
|
there is more than one system in use for a directory, Emacs uses the one
|
|
that appears first in @code{vc-handled-backends} (@pxref{Customizing VC}).
|
|
On the other hand, if there are no files already registered,
|
|
Emacs uses the first system from @code{vc-handled-backends} that could
|
|
register the file---for example, you cannot register a file under CVS if
|
|
its directory is not already part of a CVS tree.
|
|
|
|
With the default value of @code{vc-handled-backends}, this means
|
|
that Emacs uses RCS if there are any files under RCS control, CVS if
|
|
there are any files under CVS, SCCS if any files are under SCCS, or
|
|
RCS as the ultimate default.
|
|
|
|
If locking is in use, @kbd{C-x v i} leaves the file unlocked and
|
|
read-only. Type @kbd{C-x C-q} if you wish to start editing it. After
|
|
registering a file with CVS, you must subsequently commit the initial
|
|
version by typing @kbd{C-x C-q}.
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-default-init-version
|
|
@cindex initial version number to register
|
|
The initial version number for a newly registered file is 1.1, by
|
|
default. You can specify a different default by setting the variable
|
|
@code{vc-default-init-version}, or you can give @kbd{C-x v i} a numeric
|
|
argument; then it reads the initial version number for this particular
|
|
file using the minibuffer.
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-initial-comment
|
|
If @code{vc-initial-comment} is non-@code{nil}, @kbd{C-x v i} reads an
|
|
initial comment to describe the purpose of this source file. Reading
|
|
the initial comment works like reading a log entry (@pxref{Log Buffer}).
|
|
|
|
@node VC Status
|
|
@subsubsection VC Status Commands
|
|
|
|
@table @kbd
|
|
@item C-x v l
|
|
Display version control state and change history.
|
|
@end table
|
|
|
|
@kindex C-x v l
|
|
@findex vc-print-log
|
|
To view the detailed version control status and history of a file,
|
|
type @kbd{C-x v l} (@code{vc-print-log}). It displays the history of
|
|
changes to the current file, including the text of the log entries. The
|
|
output appears in a separate window.
|
|
|
|
@node VC Undo
|
|
@subsubsection Undoing Version Control Actions
|
|
|
|
@table @kbd
|
|
@item C-x v u
|
|
Revert the buffer and the file to the last checked-in version.
|
|
|
|
@item C-x v c
|
|
Remove the last-entered change from the master for the visited file.
|
|
This undoes your last check-in.
|
|
@end table
|
|
|
|
@kindex C-x v u
|
|
@findex vc-revert-buffer
|
|
If you want to discard your current set of changes and revert to the
|
|
last version checked in, use @kbd{C-x v u} (@code{vc-revert-buffer}).
|
|
This leaves the file unlocked; if locking is in use, you must first lock
|
|
the file again before you change it again. @kbd{C-x v u} requires
|
|
confirmation, unless it sees that you haven't made any changes since the
|
|
last checked-in version.
|
|
|
|
@kbd{C-x v u} is also the command to unlock a file if you lock it and
|
|
then decide not to change it.
|
|
|
|
@kindex C-x v c
|
|
@findex vc-cancel-version
|
|
To cancel a change that you already checked in, use @kbd{C-x v c}
|
|
(@code{vc-cancel-version}). This command discards all record of the
|
|
most recent checked-in version. @kbd{C-x v c} also offers to revert
|
|
your work file and buffer to the previous version (the one that precedes
|
|
the version that is deleted).
|
|
|
|
If you answer @kbd{no}, VC keeps your changes in the buffer, and locks
|
|
the file. The no-revert option is useful when you have checked in a
|
|
change and then discover a trivial error in it; you can cancel the
|
|
erroneous check-in, fix the error, and check the file in again.
|
|
|
|
When @kbd{C-x v c} does not revert the buffer, it unexpands all
|
|
version control headers in the buffer instead (@pxref{Version Headers}).
|
|
This is because the buffer no longer corresponds to any existing
|
|
version. If you check it in again, the check-in process will expand the
|
|
headers properly for the new version number.
|
|
|
|
However, it is impossible to unexpand the RCS @samp{@w{$}Log$} header
|
|
automatically. If you use that header feature, you have to unexpand it
|
|
by hand---by deleting the entry for the version that you just canceled.
|
|
|
|
Be careful when invoking @kbd{C-x v c}, as it is easy to lose a lot of
|
|
work with it. To help you be careful, this command always requires
|
|
confirmation with @kbd{yes}. Note also that this command is disabled
|
|
under CVS, because canceling versions is very dangerous and discouraged
|
|
with CVS.
|
|
|
|
@node VC Dired Mode
|
|
@subsubsection Dired under VC
|
|
|
|
@cindex PCL-CVS
|
|
@pindex cvs
|
|
@cindex CVS Dired Mode
|
|
The VC Dired Mode described here works with all the version control
|
|
systems that VC supports. Another more powerful facility, designed
|
|
specifically for CVS, is called PCL-CVS. @xref{Top, , About PCL-CVS,
|
|
pcl-cvs, PCL-CVS --- The Emacs Front-End to CVS}.
|
|
|
|
@kindex C-x v d
|
|
@findex vc-directory
|
|
When you are working on a large program, it is often useful to find
|
|
out which files have changed within an entire directory tree, or to view
|
|
the status of all files under version control at once, and to perform
|
|
version control operations on collections of files. You can use the
|
|
command @kbd{C-x v d} (@code{vc-directory}) to make a directory listing
|
|
that includes only files relevant for version control.
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-dired-terse-display
|
|
@kbd{C-x v d} creates a buffer which uses VC Dired Mode. This looks
|
|
much like an ordinary Dired buffer (@pxref{Dired}); however, normally it
|
|
shows only the noteworthy files (those locked or not up-to-date). This
|
|
is called @dfn{terse display}. If you set the variable
|
|
@code{vc-dired-terse-display} to @code{nil}, then VC Dired shows all
|
|
relevant files---those managed under version control, plus all
|
|
subdirectories (@dfn{full display}). The command @kbd{v t} in a VC
|
|
Dired buffer toggles between terse display and full display (@pxref{VC
|
|
Dired Commands}).
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-dired-recurse
|
|
By default, VC Dired produces a recursive listing of noteworthy or
|
|
relevant files at or below the given directory. You can change this by
|
|
setting the variable @code{vc-dired-recurse} to @code{nil}; then VC
|
|
Dired shows only the files in the given directory.
|
|
|
|
The line for an individual file shows the version control state in the
|
|
place of the hard link count, owner, group, and size of the file. If
|
|
the file is unmodified, in sync with the master file, the version
|
|
control state shown is blank. Otherwise it consists of text in
|
|
parentheses. Under RCS and SCCS, the name of the user locking the file
|
|
is shown; under CVS, an abbreviated version of the @samp{cvs status}
|
|
output is used. Here is an example using RCS:
|
|
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
@group
|
|
/home/jim/project:
|
|
|
|
-rw-r--r-- (jim) Apr 2 23:39 file1
|
|
-r--r--r-- Apr 5 20:21 file2
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
|
|
@noindent
|
|
The files @samp{file1} and @samp{file2} are under version control,
|
|
@samp{file1} is locked by user jim, and @samp{file2} is unlocked.
|
|
|
|
Here is an example using CVS:
|
|
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
@group
|
|
/home/joe/develop:
|
|
|
|
-rw-r--r-- (modified) Aug 2 1997 file1.c
|
|
-rw-r--r-- Apr 4 20:09 file2.c
|
|
-rw-r--r-- (merge) Sep 13 1996 file3.c
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
|
|
Here @samp{file1.c} is modified with respect to the repository, and
|
|
@samp{file2.c} is not. @samp{file3.c} is modified, but other changes
|
|
have also been checked in to the repository---you need to merge them
|
|
with the work file before you can check it in.
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-directory-exclusion-list
|
|
When VC Dired displays subdirectories (in the ``full'' display mode),
|
|
it omits some that should never contain any files under version control.
|
|
By default, this includes Version Control subdirectories such as
|
|
@samp{RCS} and @samp{CVS}; you can customize this by setting the
|
|
variable @code{vc-directory-exclusion-list}.
|
|
|
|
You can fine-tune VC Dired's format by typing @kbd{C-u C-x v d}---as in
|
|
ordinary Dired, that allows you to specify additional switches for the
|
|
@samp{ls} command.
|
|
|
|
@node VC Dired Commands
|
|
@subsubsection VC Dired Commands
|
|
|
|
All the usual Dired commands work normally in VC Dired mode, except
|
|
for @kbd{v}, which is redefined as the version control prefix. You can
|
|
invoke VC commands such as @code{vc-diff} and @code{vc-print-log} by
|
|
typing @kbd{v =}, or @kbd{v l}, and so on. Most of these commands apply
|
|
to the file name on the current line.
|
|
|
|
The command @kbd{v v} (@code{vc-next-action}) operates on all the
|
|
marked files, so that you can lock or check in several files at once.
|
|
If it operates on more than one file, it handles each file according to
|
|
its current state; thus, it might lock one file, but check in another
|
|
file. This could be confusing; it is up to you to avoid confusing
|
|
behavior by marking a set of files that are in a similar state.
|
|
|
|
If any files call for check-in, @kbd{v v} reads a single log entry,
|
|
then uses it for all the files being checked in. This is convenient for
|
|
registering or checking in several files at once, as part of the same
|
|
change.
|
|
|
|
@findex vc-dired-toggle-terse-mode
|
|
@findex vc-dired-mark-locked
|
|
You can toggle between terse display (only locked files, or files not
|
|
up-to-date) and full display at any time by typing @kbd{v t}
|
|
(@code{vc-dired-toggle-terse-mode}). There is also a special command
|
|
@kbd{* l} (@code{vc-dired-mark-locked}), which marks all files currently
|
|
locked (or, with CVS, all files not up-to-date). Thus, typing @kbd{* l
|
|
t k} is another way to delete from the buffer all files except those
|
|
currently locked.
|
|
|
|
@node Branches
|
|
@subsection Multiple Branches of a File
|
|
@cindex branch (version control)
|
|
@cindex trunk (version control)
|
|
|
|
One use of version control is to maintain multiple ``current''
|
|
versions of a file. For example, you might have different versions of a
|
|
program in which you are gradually adding various unfinished new
|
|
features. Each such independent line of development is called a
|
|
@dfn{branch}. VC allows you to create branches, switch between
|
|
different branches, and merge changes from one branch to another.
|
|
Please note, however, that branches are only supported for RCS at the
|
|
moment.
|
|
|
|
A file's main line of development is usually called the @dfn{trunk}.
|
|
The versions on the trunk are normally numbered 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, etc. At
|
|
any such version, you can start an independent branch. A branch
|
|
starting at version 1.2 would have version number 1.2.1.1, and consecutive
|
|
versions on this branch would have numbers 1.2.1.2, 1.2.1.3, 1.2.1.4,
|
|
and so on. If there is a second branch also starting at version 1.2, it
|
|
would consist of versions 1.2.2.1, 1.2.2.2, 1.2.2.3, etc.
|
|
|
|
@cindex head version
|
|
If you omit the final component of a version number, that is called a
|
|
@dfn{branch number}. It refers to the highest existing version on that
|
|
branch---the @dfn{head version} of that branch. The branches in the
|
|
example above have branch numbers 1.2.1 and 1.2.2.
|
|
|
|
@menu
|
|
* Switching Branches:: How to get to another existing branch.
|
|
* Creating Branches:: How to start a new branch.
|
|
* Merging:: Transferring changes between branches.
|
|
* Multi-User Branching:: Multiple users working at multiple branches
|
|
in parallel.
|
|
@end menu
|
|
|
|
@node Switching Branches
|
|
@subsubsection Switching between Branches
|
|
|
|
To switch between branches, type @kbd{C-u C-x C-q} and specify the
|
|
version number you want to select. This version is then visited
|
|
@emph{unlocked} (write-protected), so you can examine it before locking
|
|
it. Switching branches in this way is allowed only when the file is not
|
|
locked.
|
|
|
|
You can omit the minor version number, thus giving only the branch
|
|
number; this takes you to the head version on the chosen branch. If you
|
|
only type @key{RET}, Emacs goes to the highest version on the trunk.
|
|
|
|
After you have switched to any branch (including the main branch), you
|
|
stay on it for subsequent VC commands, until you explicitly select some
|
|
other branch.
|
|
|
|
@node Creating Branches
|
|
@subsubsection Creating New Branches
|
|
|
|
To create a new branch from a head version (one that is the latest in
|
|
the branch that contains it), first select that version if necessary,
|
|
lock it with @kbd{C-x C-q}, and make whatever changes you want. Then,
|
|
when you check in the changes, use @kbd{C-u C-x C-q}. This lets you
|
|
specify the version number for the new version. You should specify a
|
|
suitable branch number for a branch starting at the current version.
|
|
For example, if the current version is 2.5, the branch number should be
|
|
2.5.1, 2.5.2, and so on, depending on the number of existing branches at
|
|
that point.
|
|
|
|
To create a new branch at an older version (one that is no longer the
|
|
head of a branch), first select that version (@pxref{Switching
|
|
Branches}), then lock it with @kbd{C-x C-q}. You'll be asked to
|
|
confirm, when you lock the old version, that you really mean to create a
|
|
new branch---if you say no, you'll be offered a chance to lock the
|
|
latest version instead.
|
|
|
|
Then make your changes and type @kbd{C-x C-q} again to check in a new
|
|
version. This automatically creates a new branch starting from the
|
|
selected version. You need not specially request a new branch, because
|
|
that's the only way to add a new version at a point that is not the head
|
|
of a branch.
|
|
|
|
After the branch is created, you ``stay'' on it. That means that
|
|
subsequent check-ins create new versions on that branch. To leave the
|
|
branch, you must explicitly select a different version with @kbd{C-u C-x
|
|
C-q}. To transfer changes from one branch to another, use the merge
|
|
command, described in the next section.
|
|
|
|
@node Merging
|
|
@subsubsection Merging Branches
|
|
|
|
@cindex merging changes
|
|
When you have finished the changes on a certain branch, you will
|
|
often want to incorporate them into the file's main line of development
|
|
(the trunk). This is not a trivial operation, because development might
|
|
also have proceeded on the trunk, so that you must @dfn{merge} the
|
|
changes into a file that has already been changed otherwise. VC allows
|
|
you to do this (and other things) with the @code{vc-merge} command.
|
|
|
|
@table @kbd
|
|
@item C-x v m (vc-merge)
|
|
Merge changes into the work file.
|
|
@end table
|
|
|
|
@kindex C-x v m
|
|
@findex vc-merge
|
|
@kbd{C-x v m} (@code{vc-merge}) takes a set of changes and merges it
|
|
into the current version of the work file. It firsts asks you in the
|
|
minibuffer where the changes should come from. If you just type
|
|
@key{RET}, Emacs merges any changes that were made on the same branch
|
|
since you checked the file out (we call this @dfn{merging the news}).
|
|
This is the common way to pick up recent changes from the repository,
|
|
regardless of whether you have already changed the file yourself.
|
|
|
|
You can also enter a branch number or a pair of version numbers in
|
|
the minibuffer. Then @kbd{C-x v m} finds the changes from that
|
|
branch, or the differences between the two versions you specified, and
|
|
merges them into the current version of the current file.
|
|
|
|
As an example, suppose that you have finished a certain feature on
|
|
branch 1.3.1. In the meantime, development on the trunk has proceeded
|
|
to version 1.5. To merge the changes from the branch to the trunk,
|
|
first go to the head version of the trunk, by typing @kbd{C-u C-x C-q
|
|
@key{RET}}. Version 1.5 is now current. If locking is used for the file,
|
|
type @kbd{C-x C-q} to lock version 1.5 so that you can change it. Next,
|
|
type @kbd{C-x v m 1.3.1 @key{RET}}. This takes the entire set of changes on
|
|
branch 1.3.1 (relative to version 1.3, where the branch started, up to
|
|
the last version on the branch) and merges it into the current version
|
|
of the work file. You can now check in the changed file, thus creating
|
|
version 1.6 containing the changes from the branch.
|
|
|
|
It is possible to do further editing after merging the branch, before
|
|
the next check-in. But it is usually wiser to check in the merged
|
|
version, then lock it and make the further changes. This will keep
|
|
a better record of the history of changes.
|
|
|
|
@cindex conflicts
|
|
@cindex resolving conflicts
|
|
When you merge changes into a file that has itself been modified, the
|
|
changes might overlap. We call this situation a @dfn{conflict}, and
|
|
reconciling the conflicting changes is called @dfn{resolving a
|
|
conflict}.
|
|
|
|
Whenever conflicts occur during merging, VC detects them, tells you
|
|
about them in the echo area, and asks whether you want help in merging.
|
|
If you say yes, it starts an Ediff session (@pxref{Top,
|
|
Ediff, Ediff, ediff, The Ediff Manual}).
|
|
|
|
If you say no, the conflicting changes are both inserted into the
|
|
file, surrounded by @dfn{conflict markers}. The example below shows how
|
|
a conflict region looks; the file is called @samp{name} and the current
|
|
master file version with user B's changes in it is 1.11.
|
|
|
|
@c @w here is so CVS won't think this is a conflict.
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
@group
|
|
@w{<}<<<<<< name
|
|
@var{User A's version}
|
|
=======
|
|
@var{User B's version}
|
|
@w{>}>>>>>> 1.11
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
|
|
@cindex vc-resolve-conflicts
|
|
Then you can resolve the conflicts by editing the file manually. Or
|
|
you can type @code{M-x vc-resolve-conflicts} after visiting the file.
|
|
This starts an Ediff session, as described above. Don't forget to
|
|
check in the merged version afterwards.
|
|
|
|
@node Multi-User Branching
|
|
@subsubsection Multi-User Branching
|
|
|
|
It is often useful for multiple developers to work simultaneously on
|
|
different branches of a file. CVS allows this by default; for RCS, it
|
|
is possible if you create multiple source directories. Each source
|
|
directory should have a link named @file{RCS} which points to a common
|
|
directory of RCS master files. Then each source directory can have its
|
|
own choice of selected versions, but all share the same common RCS
|
|
records.
|
|
|
|
This technique works reliably and automatically, provided that the
|
|
source files contain RCS version headers (@pxref{Version Headers}). The
|
|
headers enable Emacs to be sure, at all times, which version number is
|
|
present in the work file.
|
|
|
|
If the files do not have version headers, you must instead tell Emacs
|
|
explicitly in each session which branch you are working on. To do this,
|
|
first find the file, then type @kbd{C-u C-x C-q} and specify the correct
|
|
branch number. This ensures that Emacs knows which branch it is using
|
|
during this particular editing session.
|
|
|
|
@node Remote Repositories
|
|
@subsection Remote Repositories
|
|
@cindex remote repositories (CVS)
|
|
|
|
A common way of using CVS is to set up a central CVS repository on
|
|
some Internet host, then have each developer check out a personal
|
|
working copy of the files on his local machine. Committing changes to
|
|
the repository, and picking up changes from other users into one's own
|
|
working area, then works by direct interactions with the CVS server.
|
|
|
|
One difficulty is that access to the CVS server is often slow, and
|
|
that developers might need to work off-line as well. VC is designed
|
|
to reduce the amount of network interaction necessary.
|
|
|
|
@menu
|
|
* Version Backups:: Keeping local copies of repository versions.
|
|
* Local Version Control:: Using another version system for local editing.
|
|
@end menu
|
|
|
|
@node Version Backups
|
|
@subsubsection Version Backups
|
|
@cindex version backups
|
|
|
|
@cindex automatic version backups
|
|
When VC sees that the CVS repository for a file is on a remote
|
|
machine, it automatically makes local backups of unmodified versions
|
|
of the file---@dfn{automatic version backups}. This means that you
|
|
can compare the file to the repository version (@kbd{C-x v =}), or
|
|
revert to that version (@kbd{C-x v u}), without any network
|
|
interactions.
|
|
|
|
The local copy of the unmodified file is called a @dfn{version
|
|
backup} to indicate that it corresponds exactly to a version that is
|
|
stored in the repository. Note that version backups are not the same
|
|
as ordinary Emacs backup files (@pxref{Backup}). But they follow a
|
|
similar naming convention.
|
|
|
|
For a file that comes from a remote CVS repository, VC makes a
|
|
version backup whenever you save the first changes to the file, and
|
|
removes it after you have committed your modified version to the
|
|
repository. You can disable the making of automatic version backups by
|
|
setting @code{vc-cvs-stay-local} to @code{nil} (@pxref{CVS Options}).
|
|
|
|
@cindex manual version backups
|
|
The name of the automatic version backup for version @var{version}
|
|
of file @var{file} is @code{@var{file}.~@var{version}.~}. This is
|
|
almost the same as the name used by @kbd{C-x v ~} (@pxref{Old
|
|
Versions}), the only difference being the additional dot (@samp{.})
|
|
after the version number. This similarity is intentional, because
|
|
both kinds of files store the same kind of information. The file made
|
|
by @kbd{C-x v ~} acts as a @dfn{manual version backup}.
|
|
|
|
All the VC commands that operate on old versions of a file can use
|
|
both kinds of version backups. For instance, @kbd{C-x v ~} uses
|
|
either an automatic or a manual version backup, if possible, to get
|
|
the contents of the version you request. Likewise, @kbd{C-x v =} and
|
|
@kbd{C-x v u} use either an automatic or a manual version backup, if
|
|
one of them exists, to get the contents of a version to compare or
|
|
revert to. If you changed a file outside of Emacs, so that no
|
|
automatic version backup was created for the previous text, you can
|
|
create a manual backup of that version using @kbd{C-x v ~}, and thus
|
|
obtain the benefit of the local copy for Emacs commands.
|
|
|
|
The only difference in Emacs's handling of manual and automatic
|
|
version backups, once they exist, is that Emacs deletes automatic
|
|
version backups when you commit to the repository. By contrast,
|
|
manual version backups remain until you delete them.
|
|
|
|
@node Local Version Control
|
|
@subsubsection Local Version Control
|
|
@cindex local version control
|
|
@cindex local back end (version control)
|
|
|
|
When you make many changes to a file that comes from a remote
|
|
repository, it can be convenient to have version control on your local
|
|
machine as well. You can then record intermediate versions, revert to
|
|
a previous state, etc., before you actually commit your changes to the
|
|
remote server.
|
|
|
|
VC lets you do this by putting a file under a second, local version
|
|
control system, so that the file is effectively registered in two
|
|
systems at the same time. For the description here, we will assume
|
|
that the remote system is CVS, and you use RCS locally, although the
|
|
mechanism works with any combination of version control systems
|
|
(@dfn{back ends}).
|
|
|
|
To make it work with other back ends, you must make sure that the
|
|
``more local'' back end comes before the ``more remote'' back end in
|
|
the setting of @code{vc-handled-backends} (@pxref{Customizing VC}). By
|
|
default, this variable is set up so that you can use remote CVS and
|
|
local RCS as described here.
|
|
|
|
To start using local RCS for a file that comes from a remote CVS
|
|
server, you must @emph{register the file in RCS}, by typing @kbd{C-u
|
|
C-x v v rcs @key{RET}}. (In other words, use @code{vc-next-action} with a
|
|
prefix argument, and specify RCS as the back end.)
|
|
|
|
You can do this at any time; it does not matter whether you have
|
|
already modified the file with respect to the version in the CVS
|
|
repository. If possible, VC tries to make the RCS master start with
|
|
the unmodified repository version, then checks in any local changes
|
|
as a new version. This works if you have not made any changes yet, or
|
|
if the unmodified repository version exists locally as a version
|
|
backup (@pxref{Version Backups}). If the unmodified version is not
|
|
available locally, the RCS master starts with the modified version;
|
|
the only drawback to this is that you cannot compare your changes
|
|
locally to what is stored in the repository.
|
|
|
|
The version number of the RCS master is derived from the current CVS
|
|
version, starting a branch from it. For example, if the current CVS
|
|
version is 1.23, the local RCS branch will be 1.23.1. Version 1.23 in
|
|
the RCS master will be identical to version 1.23 under CVS; your first
|
|
changes are checked in as 1.23.1.1. (If the unmodified file is not
|
|
available locally, VC will check in the modified file twice, both as
|
|
1.23 and 1.23.1.1, to make the revision numbers consistent.)
|
|
|
|
If you do not use locking under CVS (the default), locking is also
|
|
disabled for RCS, so that editing under RCS works exactly as under
|
|
CVS.
|
|
|
|
When you are done with local editing, you can commit the final version
|
|
back to the CVS repository by typing @kbd{C-u C-x v v cvs @key{RET}}.
|
|
This initializes the log entry buffer (@pxref{Log Buffer}) to contain
|
|
all the log entries you have recorded in the RCS master; you can edit
|
|
them as you wish, and then commit in CVS by typing @kbd{C-c C-c}. If
|
|
the commit is successful, VC removes the RCS master, so that the file
|
|
is once again registered under CVS only. (The RCS master is not
|
|
actually deleted, just renamed by appending @samp{~} to the name, so
|
|
that you can refer to it later if you wish.)
|
|
|
|
While using local RCS, you can pick up recent changes from the CVS
|
|
repository into your local file, or commit some of your changes back
|
|
to CVS, without terminating local RCS version control. To do this,
|
|
switch to the CVS back end temporarily, with the @kbd{C-x v b} command:
|
|
|
|
@table @kbd
|
|
@item C-x v b
|
|
Switch to another back end that the current file is registered
|
|
under (@code{vc-switch-backend}).
|
|
|
|
@item C-u C-x v b @var{backend} @key{RET}
|
|
Switch to @var{backend} for the current file.
|
|
@end table
|
|
|
|
@kindex C-x v b
|
|
@findex vc-switch-backend
|
|
@kbd{C-x v b} does not change the buffer contents, or any files; it
|
|
only changes VC's perspective on how to handle the file. Any
|
|
subsequent VC commands for that file will operate on the back end that
|
|
is currently selected.
|
|
|
|
If the current file is registered in more than one back end, typing
|
|
@kbd{C-x v b} ``cycles'' through all of these back ends. With a
|
|
prefix argument, it asks for the back end to use in the minibuffer.
|
|
|
|
Thus, if you are using local RCS, and you want to pick up some recent
|
|
changes in the file from remote CVS, first visit the file, then type
|
|
@kbd{C-x v b} to switch to CVS, and finally use @kbd{C-x v m
|
|
@key{RET}} to merge the news (@pxref{Merging}). You can then switch
|
|
back to RCS by typing @kbd{C-x v b} again, and continue to edit
|
|
locally.
|
|
|
|
But if you do this, the revision numbers in the RCS master no longer
|
|
correspond to those of CVS. Technically, this is not a problem, but
|
|
it can become difficult to keep track of what is in the CVS repository
|
|
and what is not. So we suggest that you return from time to time to
|
|
CVS-only operation, using @kbd{C-u C-x v v cvs @key{RET}}.
|
|
|
|
@node Snapshots
|
|
@subsection Snapshots
|
|
@cindex snapshots and version control
|
|
|
|
A @dfn{snapshot} is a named set of file versions (one for each
|
|
registered file) that you can treat as a unit. One important kind of
|
|
snapshot is a @dfn{release}, a (theoretically) stable version of the
|
|
system that is ready for distribution to users.
|
|
|
|
@menu
|
|
* Making Snapshots:: The snapshot facilities.
|
|
* Snapshot Caveats:: Things to be careful of when using snapshots.
|
|
@end menu
|
|
|
|
@node Making Snapshots
|
|
@subsubsection Making and Using Snapshots
|
|
|
|
There are two basic commands for snapshots; one makes a
|
|
snapshot with a given name, the other retrieves a named snapshot.
|
|
|
|
@table @code
|
|
@kindex C-x v s
|
|
@findex vc-create-snapshot
|
|
@item C-x v s @var{name} @key{RET}
|
|
Define the last saved versions of every registered file in or under the
|
|
current directory as a snapshot named @var{name}
|
|
(@code{vc-create-snapshot}).
|
|
|
|
@kindex C-x v r
|
|
@findex vc-retrieve-snapshot
|
|
@item C-x v r @var{name} @key{RET}
|
|
For all registered files at or below the current directory level, select
|
|
whatever versions correspond to the snapshot @var{name}
|
|
(@code{vc-retrieve-snapshot}).
|
|
|
|
This command reports an error if any files are locked at or below the
|
|
current directory, without changing anything; this is to avoid
|
|
overwriting work in progress.
|
|
@end table
|
|
|
|
A snapshot uses a very small amount of resources---just enough to record
|
|
the list of file names and which version belongs to the snapshot. Thus,
|
|
you need not hesitate to create snapshots whenever they are useful.
|
|
|
|
You can give a snapshot name as an argument to @kbd{C-x v =} or
|
|
@kbd{C-x v ~} (@pxref{Old Versions}). Thus, you can use it to compare a
|
|
snapshot against the current files, or two snapshots against each other,
|
|
or a snapshot against a named version.
|
|
|
|
@node Snapshot Caveats
|
|
@subsubsection Snapshot Caveats
|
|
|
|
@cindex named configurations (RCS)
|
|
VC's snapshot facilities are modeled on RCS's named-configuration
|
|
support. They use RCS's native facilities for this, so under VC
|
|
snapshots made using RCS are visible even when you bypass VC.
|
|
|
|
@c worded verbosely to avoid overfull hbox.
|
|
For SCCS, VC implements snapshots itself. The files it uses contain
|
|
name/file/version-number triples. These snapshots are visible only
|
|
through VC.
|
|
|
|
A snapshot is a set of checked-in versions. So make sure that all the
|
|
files are checked in and not locked when you make a snapshot.
|
|
|
|
File renaming and deletion can create some difficulties with snapshots.
|
|
This is not a VC-specific problem, but a general design issue in version
|
|
control systems that no one has solved very well yet.
|
|
|
|
If you rename a registered file, you need to rename its master along
|
|
with it (the command @code{vc-rename-file} does this automatically). If
|
|
you are using SCCS, you must also update the records of the snapshot, to
|
|
mention the file by its new name (@code{vc-rename-file} does this,
|
|
too). An old snapshot that refers to a master file that no longer
|
|
exists under the recorded name is invalid; VC can no longer retrieve
|
|
it. It would be beyond the scope of this manual to explain enough about
|
|
RCS and SCCS to explain how to update the snapshots by hand.
|
|
|
|
Using @code{vc-rename-file} makes the snapshot remain valid for
|
|
retrieval, but it does not solve all problems. For example, some of the
|
|
files in your program probably refer to others by name. At the very
|
|
least, the makefile probably mentions the file that you renamed. If you
|
|
retrieve an old snapshot, the renamed file is retrieved under its new
|
|
name, which is not the name that the makefile expects. So the program
|
|
won't really work as retrieved.
|
|
|
|
@node Miscellaneous VC
|
|
@subsection Miscellaneous Commands and Features of VC
|
|
|
|
This section explains the less-frequently-used features of VC.
|
|
|
|
@menu
|
|
* Change Logs and VC:: Generating a change log file from log entries.
|
|
* Renaming and VC:: A command to rename both the source and master
|
|
file correctly.
|
|
* Version Headers:: Inserting version control headers into working files.
|
|
@end menu
|
|
|
|
@node Change Logs and VC
|
|
@subsubsection Change Logs and VC
|
|
|
|
If you use RCS or CVS for a program and also maintain a change log
|
|
file for it (@pxref{Change Log}), you can generate change log entries
|
|
automatically from the version control log entries:
|
|
|
|
@table @kbd
|
|
@item C-x v a
|
|
@kindex C-x v a
|
|
@findex vc-update-change-log
|
|
Visit the current directory's change log file and, for registered files
|
|
in that directory, create new entries for versions checked in since the
|
|
most recent entry in the change log file.
|
|
(@code{vc-update-change-log}).
|
|
|
|
This command works with RCS or CVS only, not with SCCS.
|
|
|
|
@item C-u C-x v a
|
|
As above, but only find entries for the current buffer's file.
|
|
|
|
@item M-1 C-x v a
|
|
As above, but find entries for all the currently visited files that are
|
|
maintained with version control. This works only with RCS, and it puts
|
|
all entries in the log for the default directory, which may not be
|
|
appropriate.
|
|
@end table
|
|
|
|
For example, suppose the first line of @file{ChangeLog} is dated
|
|
1999-04-10, and that the only check-in since then was by Nathaniel
|
|
Bowditch to @file{rcs2log} on 1999-05-22 with log text @samp{Ignore log
|
|
messages that start with `#'.}. Then @kbd{C-x v a} visits
|
|
@file{ChangeLog} and inserts text like this:
|
|
|
|
@iftex
|
|
@medbreak
|
|
@end iftex
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
@group
|
|
1999-05-22 Nathaniel Bowditch <nat@@apn.org>
|
|
|
|
* rcs2log: Ignore log messages that start with `#'.
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
@iftex
|
|
@medbreak
|
|
@end iftex
|
|
|
|
@noindent
|
|
You can then edit the new change log entry further as you wish.
|
|
|
|
Some of the new change log entries may duplicate what's already in
|
|
ChangeLog. You will have to remove these duplicates by hand.
|
|
|
|
Normally, the log entry for file @file{foo} is displayed as @samp{*
|
|
foo: @var{text of log entry}}. The @samp{:} after @file{foo} is omitted
|
|
if the text of the log entry starts with @w{@samp{(@var{functionname}):
|
|
}}. For example, if the log entry for @file{vc.el} is
|
|
@samp{(vc-do-command): Check call-process status.}, then the text in
|
|
@file{ChangeLog} looks like this:
|
|
|
|
@iftex
|
|
@medbreak
|
|
@end iftex
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
@group
|
|
1999-05-06 Nathaniel Bowditch <nat@@apn.org>
|
|
|
|
* vc.el (vc-do-command): Check call-process status.
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
@iftex
|
|
@medbreak
|
|
@end iftex
|
|
|
|
When @kbd{C-x v a} adds several change log entries at once, it groups
|
|
related log entries together if they all are checked in by the same
|
|
author at nearly the same time. If the log entries for several such
|
|
files all have the same text, it coalesces them into a single entry.
|
|
For example, suppose the most recent check-ins have the following log
|
|
entries:
|
|
|
|
@flushleft
|
|
@bullet{} For @file{vc.texinfo}: @samp{Fix expansion typos.}
|
|
@bullet{} For @file{vc.el}: @samp{Don't call expand-file-name.}
|
|
@bullet{} For @file{vc-hooks.el}: @samp{Don't call expand-file-name.}
|
|
@end flushleft
|
|
|
|
@noindent
|
|
They appear like this in @file{ChangeLog}:
|
|
|
|
@iftex
|
|
@medbreak
|
|
@end iftex
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
@group
|
|
1999-04-01 Nathaniel Bowditch <nat@@apn.org>
|
|
|
|
* vc.texinfo: Fix expansion typos.
|
|
|
|
* vc.el, vc-hooks.el: Don't call expand-file-name.
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
@iftex
|
|
@medbreak
|
|
@end iftex
|
|
|
|
Normally, @kbd{C-x v a} separates log entries by a blank line, but you
|
|
can mark several related log entries to be clumped together (without an
|
|
intervening blank line) by starting the text of each related log entry
|
|
with a label of the form @w{@samp{@{@var{clumpname}@} }}. The label
|
|
itself is not copied to @file{ChangeLog}. For example, suppose the log
|
|
entries are:
|
|
|
|
@flushleft
|
|
@bullet{} For @file{vc.texinfo}: @samp{@{expand@} Fix expansion typos.}
|
|
@bullet{} For @file{vc.el}: @samp{@{expand@} Don't call expand-file-name.}
|
|
@bullet{} For @file{vc-hooks.el}: @samp{@{expand@} Don't call expand-file-name.}
|
|
@end flushleft
|
|
|
|
@noindent
|
|
Then the text in @file{ChangeLog} looks like this:
|
|
|
|
@iftex
|
|
@medbreak
|
|
@end iftex
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
@group
|
|
1999-04-01 Nathaniel Bowditch <nat@@apn.org>
|
|
|
|
* vc.texinfo: Fix expansion typos.
|
|
* vc.el, vc-hooks.el: Don't call expand-file-name.
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
@iftex
|
|
@medbreak
|
|
@end iftex
|
|
|
|
A log entry whose text begins with @samp{#} is not copied to
|
|
@file{ChangeLog}. For example, if you merely fix some misspellings in
|
|
comments, you can log the change with an entry beginning with @samp{#}
|
|
to avoid putting such trivia into @file{ChangeLog}.
|
|
|
|
@node Renaming and VC
|
|
@subsubsection Renaming VC Work Files and Master Files
|
|
|
|
@findex vc-rename-file
|
|
When you rename a registered file, you must also rename its master
|
|
file correspondingly to get proper results. Use @code{vc-rename-file}
|
|
to rename the source file as you specify, and rename its master file
|
|
accordingly. It also updates any snapshots (@pxref{Snapshots}) that
|
|
mention the file, so that they use the new name; despite this, the
|
|
snapshot thus modified may not completely work (@pxref{Snapshot
|
|
Caveats}).
|
|
|
|
You cannot use @code{vc-rename-file} on a file that is locked by
|
|
someone else.
|
|
|
|
@node Version Headers
|
|
@subsubsection Inserting Version Control Headers
|
|
|
|
Sometimes it is convenient to put version identification strings
|
|
directly into working files. Certain special strings called
|
|
@dfn{version headers} are replaced in each successive version by the
|
|
number of that version.
|
|
|
|
If you are using RCS, and version headers are present in your working
|
|
files, Emacs can use them to determine the current version and the
|
|
locking state of the files. This is more reliable than referring to the
|
|
master files, which is done when there are no version headers. Note
|
|
that in a multi-branch environment, version headers are necessary to
|
|
make VC behave correctly (@pxref{Multi-User Branching}).
|
|
|
|
Searching for version headers is controlled by the variable
|
|
@code{vc-consult-headers}. If it is non-@code{nil} (the default),
|
|
Emacs searches for headers to determine the version number you are
|
|
editing. Setting it to @code{nil} disables this feature.
|
|
|
|
@kindex C-x v h
|
|
@findex vc-insert-headers
|
|
You can use the @kbd{C-x v h} command (@code{vc-insert-headers}) to
|
|
insert a suitable header string.
|
|
|
|
@table @kbd
|
|
@item C-x v h
|
|
Insert headers in a file for use with your version-control system.
|
|
@end table
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-header-alist
|
|
The default header string is @samp{@w{$}Id$} for RCS and
|
|
@samp{@w{%}W%} for SCCS. You can specify other headers to insert by
|
|
setting the variable @code{vc-header-alist}. Its value is a list of
|
|
elements of the form @code{(@var{program} . @var{string})} where
|
|
@var{program} is @code{RCS} or @code{SCCS} and @var{string} is the
|
|
string to use.
|
|
|
|
Instead of a single string, you can specify a list of strings; then
|
|
each string in the list is inserted as a separate header on a line of
|
|
its own.
|
|
|
|
It is often necessary to use ``superfluous'' backslashes when
|
|
writing the strings that you put in this variable. For instance, you
|
|
might write @code{"$Id\$"} rather than @code{"$Id@w{$}"}. The extra
|
|
backslash prevents the string constant from being interpreted as a
|
|
header, if the Emacs Lisp file containing it is maintained with
|
|
version control.
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-comment-alist
|
|
Each header is inserted surrounded by tabs, inside comment delimiters,
|
|
on a new line at point. Normally the ordinary comment
|
|
start and comment end strings of the current mode are used, but for
|
|
certain modes, there are special comment delimiters for this purpose;
|
|
the variable @code{vc-comment-alist} specifies them. Each element of
|
|
this list has the form @code{(@var{mode} @var{starter} @var{ender})}.
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-static-header-alist
|
|
The variable @code{vc-static-header-alist} specifies further strings
|
|
to add based on the name of the buffer. Its value should be a list of
|
|
elements of the form @code{(@var{regexp} . @var{format})}. Whenever
|
|
@var{regexp} matches the buffer name, @var{format} is inserted as part
|
|
of the header. A header line is inserted for each element that matches
|
|
the buffer name, and for each string specified by
|
|
@code{vc-header-alist}. The header line is made by processing the
|
|
string from @code{vc-header-alist} with the format taken from the
|
|
element. The default value for @code{vc-static-header-alist} is as follows:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(("\\.c$" .
|
|
"\n#ifndef lint\nstatic char vcid[] = \"\%s\";\n\
|
|
#endif /* lint */\n"))
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
@noindent
|
|
It specifies insertion of text of this form:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
|
|
#ifndef lint
|
|
static char vcid[] = "@var{string}";
|
|
#endif /* lint */
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
@noindent
|
|
Note that the text above starts with a blank line.
|
|
|
|
If you use more than one version header in a file, put them close
|
|
together in the file. The mechanism in @code{revert-buffer} that
|
|
preserves markers may not handle markers positioned between two version
|
|
headers.
|
|
|
|
@node Customizing VC
|
|
@subsection Customizing VC
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-handled-backends
|
|
The variable @code{vc-handled-backends} determines which version
|
|
control systems VC should handle. The default value is @code{(RCS CVS
|
|
SCCS)}, so it contains all three version systems that are currently
|
|
supported. If you want VC to ignore one or more of these systems,
|
|
exclude its name from the list.
|
|
|
|
The order of systems in the list is significant: when you visit a file
|
|
registered in more than one system (@pxref{Local Version Control}),
|
|
VC uses the system that comes first in @code{vc-handled-backends} by
|
|
default. The order is also significant when you register a file for
|
|
the first time, @pxref{Registering} for details.
|
|
|
|
@menu
|
|
* General VC Options:: Options that apply to multiple back ends.
|
|
* RCS and SCCS:: Options for RCS and SCCS.
|
|
* CVS Options:: Options for CVS.
|
|
@end menu
|
|
|
|
@node General VC Options
|
|
@subsubsection General Options
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-make-backup-files
|
|
Emacs normally does not save backup files for source files that are
|
|
maintained with version control. If you want to make backup files even
|
|
for files that use version control, set the variable
|
|
@code{vc-make-backup-files} to a non-@code{nil} value.
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-keep-workfiles
|
|
Normally the work file exists all the time, whether it is locked or
|
|
not. If you set @code{vc-keep-workfiles} to @code{nil}, then checking
|
|
in a new version with @kbd{C-x C-q} deletes the work file; but any
|
|
attempt to visit the file with Emacs creates it again. (With CVS, work
|
|
files are always kept.)
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-follow-symlinks
|
|
Editing a version-controlled file through a symbolic link can be
|
|
dangerous. It bypasses the version control system---you can edit the
|
|
file without locking it, and fail to check your changes in. Also,
|
|
your changes might overwrite those of another user. To protect against
|
|
this, VC checks each symbolic link that you visit, to see if it points
|
|
to a file under version control.
|
|
|
|
The variable @code{vc-follow-symlinks} controls what to do when a
|
|
symbolic link points to a version-controlled file. If it is @code{nil},
|
|
VC only displays a warning message. If it is @code{t}, VC automatically
|
|
follows the link, and visits the real file instead, telling you about
|
|
this in the echo area. If the value is @code{ask} (the default), VC
|
|
asks you each time whether to follow the link.
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-suppress-confirm
|
|
If @code{vc-suppress-confirm} is non-@code{nil}, then @kbd{C-x C-q}
|
|
and @kbd{C-x v i} can save the current buffer without asking, and
|
|
@kbd{C-x v u} also operates without asking for confirmation. (This
|
|
variable does not affect @kbd{C-x v c}; that operation is so drastic
|
|
that it should always ask for confirmation.)
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-command-messages
|
|
VC mode does much of its work by running the shell commands for RCS,
|
|
CVS and SCCS. If @code{vc-command-messages} is non-@code{nil}, VC
|
|
displays messages to indicate which shell commands it runs, and
|
|
additional messages when the commands finish.
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-path
|
|
You can specify additional directories to search for version control
|
|
programs by setting the variable @code{vc-path}. These directories
|
|
are searched before the usual search path. It is rarely necessary to
|
|
set this variable, because VC normally finds the proper files
|
|
automatically.
|
|
|
|
@node RCS and SCCS
|
|
@subsubsection Options for RCS and SCCS
|
|
|
|
@cindex non-strict locking (RCS)
|
|
@cindex locking, non-strict (RCS)
|
|
By default, RCS uses locking to coordinate the activities of several
|
|
users, but there is a mode called @dfn{non-strict locking} in which
|
|
you can check-in changes without locking the file first. Use
|
|
@samp{rcs -U} to switch to non-strict locking for a particular file,
|
|
see the @code{rcs} manual page for details.
|
|
|
|
When deducing the version control state of an RCS file, VC first
|
|
looks for an RCS version header string in the file (@pxref{Version
|
|
Headers}). If there is no header string, VC normally looks at the
|
|
file permissions of the work file; this is fast. But there might be
|
|
situations when the file permissions cannot be trusted. In this case
|
|
the master file has to be consulted, which is rather expensive. Also
|
|
the master file can only tell you @emph{if} there's any lock on the
|
|
file, but not whether your work file really contains that locked
|
|
version.
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-consult-headers
|
|
You can tell VC not to use version headers to determine the file
|
|
status by setting @code{vc-consult-headers} to @code{nil}. VC then
|
|
always uses the file permissions (if it is supposed to trust them), or
|
|
else checks the master file.
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-mistrust-permissions
|
|
You can specify the criterion for whether to trust the file
|
|
permissions by setting the variable @code{vc-mistrust-permissions}.
|
|
Its value can be @code{t} (always mistrust the file permissions and
|
|
check the master file), @code{nil} (always trust the file
|
|
permissions), or a function of one argument which makes the decision.
|
|
The argument is the directory name of the @file{RCS} subdirectory. A
|
|
non-@code{nil} value from the function says to mistrust the file
|
|
permissions. If you find that the file permissions of work files are
|
|
changed erroneously, set @code{vc-mistrust-permissions} to @code{t}.
|
|
Then VC always checks the master file to determine the file's status.
|
|
|
|
VC determines the version control state of files under SCCS much as
|
|
with RCS. It does not consider SCCS version headers, though. Thus,
|
|
the variable @code{vc-mistrust-permissions} affects SCCS use, but
|
|
@code{vc-consult-headers} does not.
|
|
|
|
@node CVS Options
|
|
@subsubsection Options specific for CVS
|
|
|
|
@cindex locking (CVS)
|
|
By default, CVS does not use locking to coordinate the activities of
|
|
several users; anyone can change a work file at any time. However,
|
|
there are ways to restrict this, resulting in behavior that resembles
|
|
locking.
|
|
|
|
@cindex CVSREAD environment variable (CVS)
|
|
For one thing, you can set the @env{CVSREAD} environment variable
|
|
(the value you use makes no difference). If this variable is defined,
|
|
CVS makes your work files read-only by default. In Emacs, you must
|
|
type @kbd{C-x C-q} to make the file writable, so that editing works
|
|
in fact similar as if locking was used. Note however, that no actual
|
|
locking is performed, so several users can make their files writable
|
|
at the same time. When setting @env{CVSREAD} for the first time, make
|
|
sure to check out all your modules anew, so that the file protections
|
|
are set correctly.
|
|
|
|
@cindex cvs watch feature
|
|
@cindex watching files (CVS)
|
|
Another way to achieve something similar to locking is to use the
|
|
@dfn{watch} feature of CVS. If a file is being watched, CVS makes it
|
|
read-only by default, and you must also use @kbd{C-x C-q} in Emacs to
|
|
make it writable. VC calls @code{cvs edit} to make the file writable,
|
|
and CVS takes care to notify other developers of the fact that you
|
|
intend to change the file. See the CVS documentation for details on
|
|
using the watch feature.
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-cvs-stay-local
|
|
@cindex remote repositories (CVS)
|
|
When a file's repository is on a remote machine, VC tries to keep
|
|
network interactions to a minimum. This is controlled by the variable
|
|
@code{vc-cvs-stay-local}. If it is @code{t} (the default), then VC uses
|
|
only the entry in the local CVS subdirectory to determine the file's
|
|
state (and possibly information returned by previous CVS commands). One
|
|
consequence of this is that when you have modified a file, and somebody
|
|
else has already checked in other changes to the file, you are not
|
|
notified of it until you actually try to commit. (But you can try to
|
|
pick up any recent changes from the repository first, using @kbd{C-x v m
|
|
@key{RET}}, @pxref{Merging}).
|
|
|
|
@vindex vc-cvs-global-switches
|
|
The variable @code{vc-cvs-global-switches} should be a string
|
|
specifyng switches to pass to CVS for all CVS operations.
|
|
|
|
When @code{vc-cvs-stay-local} is @code{t}, VC also makes local
|
|
version backups, so that simple diff and revert operations are
|
|
completely local (@pxref{Version Backups}).
|
|
|
|
On the other hand, if you set @code{vc-cvs-stay-local} to @code{nil},
|
|
then VC queries the remote repository @emph{before} it decides what to
|
|
do in @code{vc-next-action} (@kbd{C-x v v}), just as it does for local
|
|
repositories. It also does not make any version backups.
|
|
|
|
You can also set @code{vc-cvs-stay-local} to a regular expression
|
|
that is matched against the repository host name; VC then stays local
|
|
only for repositories from hosts that match the pattern.
|
|
|
|
@node Directories
|
|
@section File Directories
|
|
|
|
@cindex file directory
|
|
@cindex directory listing
|
|
The file system groups files into @dfn{directories}. A @dfn{directory
|
|
listing} is a list of all the files in a directory. Emacs provides
|
|
commands to create and delete directories, and to make directory
|
|
listings in brief format (file names only) and verbose format (sizes,
|
|
dates, and authors included). There is also a directory browser called
|
|
Dired; see @ref{Dired}.
|
|
|
|
@table @kbd
|
|
@item C-x C-d @var{dir-or-pattern} @key{RET}
|
|
Display a brief directory listing (@code{list-directory}).
|
|
@item C-u C-x C-d @var{dir-or-pattern} @key{RET}
|
|
Display a verbose directory listing.
|
|
@item M-x make-directory @key{RET} @var{dirname} @key{RET}
|
|
Create a new directory named @var{dirname}.
|
|
@item M-x delete-directory @key{RET} @var{dirname} @key{RET}
|
|
Delete the directory named @var{dirname}. It must be empty,
|
|
or you get an error.
|
|
@end table
|
|
|
|
@findex list-directory
|
|
@kindex C-x C-d
|
|
The command to display a directory listing is @kbd{C-x C-d}
|
|
(@code{list-directory}). It reads using the minibuffer a file name
|
|
which is either a directory to be listed or a wildcard-containing
|
|
pattern for the files to be listed. For example,
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
C-x C-d /u2/emacs/etc @key{RET}
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
@noindent
|
|
lists all the files in directory @file{/u2/emacs/etc}. Here is an
|
|
example of specifying a file name pattern:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
C-x C-d /u2/emacs/src/*.c @key{RET}
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
Normally, @kbd{C-x C-d} displays a brief directory listing containing
|
|
just file names. A numeric argument (regardless of value) tells it to
|
|
make a verbose listing including sizes, dates, and owners (like
|
|
@samp{ls -l}).
|
|
|
|
@vindex list-directory-brief-switches
|
|
@vindex list-directory-verbose-switches
|
|
The text of a directory listing is mostly obtained by running
|
|
@code{ls} in an inferior process. Two Emacs variables control the
|
|
switches passed to @code{ls}: @code{list-directory-brief-switches} is
|
|
a string giving the switches to use in brief listings (@code{"-CF"} by
|
|
default), and @code{list-directory-verbose-switches} is a string
|
|
giving the switches to use in a verbose listing (@code{"-l"} by
|
|
default).
|
|
|
|
@vindex directory-free-space-program
|
|
@vindex directory-free-space-args
|
|
Emacs adds information about the amount of free space on the disk
|
|
that contains the directory. To do this, it runs the program
|
|
specified by @code{directory-free-space-program} with arguments
|
|
@code{directory-free-space-args}.
|
|
|
|
@node Comparing Files
|
|
@section Comparing Files
|
|
@cindex comparing files
|
|
|
|
@findex diff
|
|
@vindex diff-switches
|
|
The command @kbd{M-x diff} compares two files, displaying the
|
|
differences in an Emacs buffer named @samp{*diff*}. It works by
|
|
running the @code{diff} program, using options taken from the variable
|
|
@code{diff-switches}. The value of @code{diff-switches} should be a
|
|
string; the default is @code{"-c"} to specify a context diff.
|
|
|
|
The buffer @samp{*diff*} has Compilation mode as its major mode, so
|
|
you can use @kbd{C-x `} to visit successive changed locations in the two
|
|
source files. You can also move to a particular hunk of changes and
|
|
type @key{RET} or @kbd{C-c C-c}, or click @kbd{Mouse-2} on it, to move
|
|
to the corresponding source location. You can also use the other
|
|
special commands of Compilation mode: @key{SPC} and @key{DEL} for
|
|
scrolling, and @kbd{M-p} and @kbd{M-n} for cursor motion.
|
|
@xref{Compilation}.
|
|
|
|
@findex diff-backup
|
|
The command @kbd{M-x diff-backup} compares a specified file with its most
|
|
recent backup. If you specify the name of a backup file,
|
|
@code{diff-backup} compares it with the source file that it is a backup
|
|
of.
|
|
|
|
@findex compare-windows
|
|
The command @kbd{M-x compare-windows} compares the text in the current
|
|
window with that in the next window. Comparison starts at point in each
|
|
window, and each starting position is pushed on the mark ring in its
|
|
respective buffer. Then point moves forward in each window, a character
|
|
at a time, until a mismatch between the two windows is reached. Then
|
|
the command is finished. For more information about windows in Emacs,
|
|
@ref{Windows}.
|
|
|
|
@vindex compare-ignore-case
|
|
With a numeric argument, @code{compare-windows} ignores changes in
|
|
whitespace. If the variable @code{compare-ignore-case} is
|
|
non-@code{nil}, it ignores differences in case as well.
|
|
|
|
@findex diff-mode
|
|
@cindex diffs
|
|
@cindex patches
|
|
@cindex Diff mode
|
|
Differences between versions of files are often distributed as
|
|
@dfn{patches}, which are the output from @command{diff} or a version
|
|
control system that uses @command{diff}. @kbd{M-x diff-mode} turns on
|
|
Diff mode, a major mode for viewing and editing patches, either as
|
|
``unified diffs'' or ``context diffs.''
|
|
|
|
@cindex Smerge mode
|
|
@findex smerge-mode
|
|
@cindex failed merges
|
|
@cindex merges, failed
|
|
@cindex comparing 3 files (@code{diff3})
|
|
You can use @kbd{M-x smerge-mode} to turn on Smerge mode, a minor
|
|
mode for editing output from the @command{diff3} program. This is
|
|
typically the result of a failed merge from a version control system
|
|
``update'' outside VC, due to conflicting changes to a file. Smerge
|
|
mode provides commands to resolve conflicts by selecting specific
|
|
changes.
|
|
|
|
See also @ref{Emerge}, and @ref{Top,,, ediff, The Ediff Manual}, for
|
|
convenient facilities for merging two similar files.
|
|
|
|
@node Misc File Ops
|
|
@section Miscellaneous File Operations
|
|
|
|
Emacs has commands for performing many other operations on files.
|
|
All operate on one file; they do not accept wildcard file names.
|
|
|
|
@findex view-file
|
|
@cindex viewing
|
|
@cindex View mode
|
|
@cindex mode, View
|
|
@kbd{M-x view-file} allows you to scan or read a file by sequential
|
|
screenfuls. It reads a file name argument using the minibuffer. After
|
|
reading the file into an Emacs buffer, @code{view-file} displays the
|
|
beginning. You can then type @key{SPC} to scroll forward one windowful,
|
|
or @key{DEL} to scroll backward. Various other commands are provided
|
|
for moving around in the file, but none for changing it; type @kbd{?}
|
|
while viewing for a list of them. They are mostly the same as normal
|
|
Emacs cursor motion commands. To exit from viewing, type @kbd{q}.
|
|
The commands for viewing are defined by a special major mode called View
|
|
mode.
|
|
|
|
A related command, @kbd{M-x view-buffer}, views a buffer already present
|
|
in Emacs. @xref{Misc Buffer}.
|
|
|
|
@kindex C-x i
|
|
@findex insert-file
|
|
@kbd{M-x insert-file} (also @kbd{C-x i}) inserts a copy of the
|
|
contents of the specified file into the current buffer at point,
|
|
leaving point unchanged before the contents and the mark after them.
|
|
|
|
@findex write-region
|
|
@kbd{M-x write-region} is the inverse of @kbd{M-x insert-file}; it
|
|
copies the contents of the region into the specified file. @kbd{M-x
|
|
append-to-file} adds the text of the region to the end of the specified
|
|
file. @xref{Accumulating Text}.
|
|
|
|
@findex delete-file
|
|
@cindex deletion (of files)
|
|
@kbd{M-x delete-file} deletes the specified file, like the @code{rm}
|
|
command in the shell. If you are deleting many files in one directory, it
|
|
may be more convenient to use Dired (@pxref{Dired}).
|
|
|
|
@findex rename-file
|
|
@kbd{M-x rename-file} reads two file names @var{old} and @var{new} using
|
|
the minibuffer, then renames file @var{old} as @var{new}. If the file name
|
|
@var{new} already exists, you must confirm with @kbd{yes} or renaming is not
|
|
done; this is because renaming causes the old meaning of the name @var{new}
|
|
to be lost. If @var{old} and @var{new} are on different file systems, the
|
|
file @var{old} is copied and deleted.
|
|
|
|
@findex add-name-to-file
|
|
@cindex hard links (creation)
|
|
The similar command @kbd{M-x add-name-to-file} is used to add an
|
|
additional name to an existing file without removing its old name.
|
|
The new name is created as a ``hard link'' to the existing file.
|
|
The new name must belong on the same file system that the file is on.
|
|
On Windows, this command works only if the file resides in an NTFS
|
|
file system. On MS-DOS, it works by copying the file.
|
|
|
|
@findex copy-file
|
|
@cindex copying files
|
|
@kbd{M-x copy-file} reads the file @var{old} and writes a new file named
|
|
@var{new} with the same contents. Confirmation is required if a file named
|
|
@var{new} already exists, because copying has the consequence of overwriting
|
|
the old contents of the file @var{new}.
|
|
|
|
@findex make-symbolic-link
|
|
@kbd{M-x make-symbolic-link} reads two file names @var{target} and
|
|
@var{linkname}, then creates a symbolic link named @var{linkname}, which
|
|
points at @var{target}. The effect is that future attempts to open file
|
|
@var{linkname} will refer to whatever file is named @var{target} at the
|
|
time the opening is done, or will get an error if the name @var{target} is
|
|
not in use at that time. This command does not expand the argument
|
|
@var{target}, so that it allows you to specify a relative name
|
|
as the target of the link.
|
|
|
|
Confirmation is required when creating the link if @var{linkname} is
|
|
in use. Note that not all systems support symbolic links; on systems
|
|
that don't support them, this command is not defined.
|
|
|
|
@node Compressed Files
|
|
@section Accessing Compressed Files
|
|
@cindex compression
|
|
@cindex uncompression
|
|
@cindex Auto Compression mode
|
|
@cindex mode, Auto Compression
|
|
@pindex gzip
|
|
|
|
@findex auto-compression-mode
|
|
@vindex auto-compression-mode
|
|
Emacs comes with a library that can automatically uncompress
|
|
compressed files when you visit them, and automatically recompress them
|
|
if you alter them and save them. To enable this feature, type the
|
|
command @kbd{M-x auto-compression-mode}. You can enable it permanently
|
|
by customizing the option @code{auto-compression-mode}.
|
|
|
|
When automatic compression (which implies automatic uncompression as
|
|
well) is enabled, Emacs recognizes compressed files by their file names.
|
|
File names ending in @samp{.gz} indicate a file compressed with
|
|
@code{gzip}. Other endings indicate other compression programs.
|
|
|
|
Automatic uncompression and compression apply to all the operations in
|
|
which Emacs uses the contents of a file. This includes visiting it,
|
|
saving it, inserting its contents into a buffer, loading it, and byte
|
|
compiling it.
|
|
|
|
@node File Archives
|
|
@section File Archives
|
|
@cindex mode, tar
|
|
@cindex Tar mode
|
|
@cindex file archives
|
|
|
|
A file whose name ends in @samp{.tar} is normally an @dfn{archive}
|
|
made by the @code{tar} program. Emacs views these files in a special
|
|
mode called Tar mode which provides a Dired-like list of the contents
|
|
(@pxref{Dired}). You can move around through the list just as you
|
|
would in Dired, and visit the subfiles contained in the archive.
|
|
However, not all Dired commands are available in Tar mode.
|
|
|
|
If you enable Auto Compression mode (@pxref{Compressed Files}), then
|
|
Tar mode is used also for compressed archives---files with extensions
|
|
@samp{.tgz}, @code{.tar.Z} and @code{.tar.gz}.
|
|
|
|
The keys @kbd{e}, @kbd{f} and @key{RET} all extract a component file
|
|
into its own buffer. You can edit it there and when you save the buffer
|
|
the edited version will replace the version in the Tar buffer. @kbd{v}
|
|
extracts a file into a buffer in View mode. @kbd{o} extracts the file
|
|
and displays it in another window, so you could edit the file and
|
|
operate on the archive simultaneously. @kbd{d} marks a file for
|
|
deletion when you later use @kbd{x}, and @kbd{u} unmarks a file, as in
|
|
Dired. @kbd{C} copies a file from the archive to disk and @kbd{R}
|
|
renames a file. @kbd{g} reverts the buffer from the archive on disk.
|
|
|
|
The keys @kbd{M}, @kbd{G}, and @kbd{O} change the file's permission
|
|
bits, group, and owner, respectively.
|
|
|
|
If your display supports colors and the mouse, moving the mouse
|
|
pointer across a file name highlights that file name, indicating that
|
|
you can click on it. Clicking @kbd{Mouse-2} on the highlighted file
|
|
name extracts the file into a buffer and displays that buffer.
|
|
|
|
Saving the Tar buffer writes a new version of the archive to disk with
|
|
the changes you made to the components.
|
|
|
|
You don't need the @code{tar} program to use Tar mode---Emacs reads
|
|
the archives directly. However, accessing compressed archives
|
|
requires the appropriate uncompression program.
|
|
|
|
@cindex Archive mode
|
|
@cindex mode, archive
|
|
@cindex @code{arc}
|
|
@cindex @code{jar}
|
|
@cindex @code{zip}
|
|
@cindex @code{lzh}
|
|
@cindex @code{zoo}
|
|
@pindex arc
|
|
@pindex jar
|
|
@pindex zip
|
|
@pindex lzh
|
|
@pindex zoo
|
|
@cindex Java class archives
|
|
@cindex unzip archives
|
|
A separate but similar Archive mode is used for archives produced by
|
|
the programs @code{arc}, @code{jar}, @code{lzh}, @code{zip}, and
|
|
@code{zoo}, which have extensions corresponding to the program names.
|
|
|
|
The key bindings of Archive mode are similar to those in Tar mode,
|
|
with the addition of the @kbd{m} key which marks a file for subsequent
|
|
operations, and @kbd{M-@key{DEL}} which unmarks all the marked files.
|
|
Also, the @kbd{a} key toggles the display of detailed file
|
|
information, for those archive types where it won't fit in a single
|
|
line. Operations such as renaming a subfile, or changing its mode or
|
|
owner, are supported only for some of the archive formats.
|
|
|
|
Unlike Tar mode, Archive mode runs the archiving program to unpack
|
|
and repack archives. Details of the program names and their options
|
|
can be set in the @samp{Archive} Customize group. However, you don't
|
|
need these programs to look at the archive table of contents, only to
|
|
extract or manipulate the subfiles in the archive.
|
|
|
|
@node Remote Files
|
|
@section Remote Files
|
|
|
|
@cindex Tramp
|
|
In the following, file access via FTP will be discussed. In
|
|
addition to that facility, it is also possible to access remote files
|
|
through a shell connection. @xref{Top, The Tramp Manual,, tramp, The
|
|
Tramp Manual}.
|
|
|
|
@cindex FTP
|
|
@cindex remote file access
|
|
You can refer to files on other machines using a special file name syntax:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
/@var{host}:@var{filename}
|
|
/@var{user}@@@var{host}:@var{filename}
|
|
/@var{user}@@@var{host}#@var{port}:@var{filename}
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
@noindent
|
|
When you do this, Emacs uses the FTP program to read and write files on
|
|
the specified host. It logs in through FTP using your user name or the
|
|
name @var{user}. It may ask you for a password from time to time; this
|
|
is used for logging in on @var{host}. The form using @var{port} allows
|
|
you to access servers running on a non-default TCP port.
|
|
|
|
For using Tramp, the file name syntax looks like this:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
/[@var{host}]@var{filename}
|
|
/[@var{user}@@@var{host}]@var{filename}
|
|
/[@var{method}/@var{user}@@@var{host}]@var{filename}
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
@noindent
|
|
Note that the square brackets are part of the file names.
|
|
|
|
@cindex backups for remote files
|
|
@vindex ange-ftp-make-backup-files
|
|
If you want to disable backups for remote files, set the variable
|
|
@code{ange-ftp-make-backup-files} to @code{nil}.
|
|
|
|
By default, the auto-save files (@pxref{Auto Save Files}) for remote
|
|
files are made in the temporary file directory on the local machine.
|
|
This is achieved using the variable @code{auto-save-file-name-transforms}.
|
|
|
|
@cindex ange-ftp
|
|
@vindex ange-ftp-default-user
|
|
@cindex user name for remote file access
|
|
Normally, if you do not specify a user name in a remote file name,
|
|
that means to use your own user name. But if you set the variable
|
|
@code{ange-ftp-default-user} to a string, that string is used instead.
|
|
(The Emacs package that implements FTP file access is called
|
|
@code{ange-ftp}.)
|
|
|
|
@cindex anonymous FTP
|
|
@vindex ange-ftp-generate-anonymous-password
|
|
To visit files accessible by anonymous FTP, you use special user
|
|
names @samp{anonymous} or @samp{ftp}. Passwords for these user names
|
|
are handled specially. The variable
|
|
@code{ange-ftp-generate-anonymous-password} controls what happens: if
|
|
the value of this variable is a string, then that string is used as
|
|
the password; if non-@code{nil} (the default), then the value of
|
|
@code{user-mail-address} is used; if @code{nil}, the user is prompted
|
|
for a password as normal.
|
|
|
|
@cindex firewall, and accessing remote files
|
|
@cindex gateway, and remote file access with @code{ange-ftp}
|
|
@vindex ange-ftp-smart-gateway
|
|
@vindex ange-ftp-gateway-host
|
|
Sometimes you may be unable to access files on a remote machine
|
|
because a @dfn{firewall} in between blocks the connection for security
|
|
reasons. If you can log in on a @dfn{gateway} machine from which the
|
|
target files @emph{are} accessible, and whose FTP server supports
|
|
gatewaying features, you can still use remote file names; all you have
|
|
to do is specify the name of the gateway machine by setting the
|
|
variable @code{ange-ftp-gateway-host}, and set
|
|
@code{ange-ftp-smart-gateway} to @code{t}. Otherwise you may be able
|
|
to make remote file names work, but the procedure is complex. You can
|
|
read the instructions by typing @kbd{M-x finder-commentary @key{RET}
|
|
ange-ftp @key{RET}}.
|
|
|
|
@vindex file-name-handler-alist
|
|
@cindex disabling remote files
|
|
You can entirely turn off the FTP file name feature by removing the
|
|
entries @code{ange-ftp-completion-hook-function} and
|
|
@code{ange-ftp-hook-function} from the variable
|
|
@code{file-name-handler-alist}. You can turn off the feature in
|
|
individual cases by quoting the file name with @samp{/:} (@pxref{Quoted
|
|
File Names}).
|
|
|
|
@node Quoted File Names
|
|
@section Quoted File Names
|
|
|
|
@cindex quoting file names
|
|
You can @dfn{quote} an absolute file name to prevent special
|
|
characters and syntax in it from having their special effects.
|
|
The way to do this is to add @samp{/:} at the beginning.
|
|
|
|
For example, you can quote a local file name which appears remote, to
|
|
prevent it from being treated as a remote file name. Thus, if you have
|
|
a directory named @file{/foo:} and a file named @file{bar} in it, you
|
|
can refer to that file in Emacs as @samp{/:/foo:/bar}.
|
|
|
|
@samp{/:} can also prevent @samp{~} from being treated as a special
|
|
character for a user's home directory. For example, @file{/:/tmp/~hack}
|
|
refers to a file whose name is @file{~hack} in directory @file{/tmp}.
|
|
|
|
Quoting with @samp{/:} is also a way to enter in the minibuffer a
|
|
file name that contains @samp{$}. In order for this to work, the
|
|
@samp{/:} must be at the beginning of the minibuffer contents. (You
|
|
can also double each @samp{$}; see @ref{File Names with $}.)
|
|
|
|
You can also quote wildcard characters with @samp{/:}, for visiting.
|
|
For example, @file{/:/tmp/foo*bar} visits the file
|
|
@file{/tmp/foo*bar}.
|
|
|
|
Another method of getting the same result is to enter
|
|
@file{/tmp/foo[*]bar}, which is a wildcard specification that matches
|
|
only @file{/tmp/foo*bar}. However, in many cases there is no need to
|
|
quote the wildcard characters because even unquoted they give the
|
|
right result. For example, if the only file name in @file{/tmp} that
|
|
starts with @samp{foo} and ends with @samp{bar} is @file{foo*bar},
|
|
then specifying @file{/tmp/foo*bar} will visit only
|
|
@file{/tmp/foo*bar}.
|
|
|
|
@node File Name Cache
|
|
@section File Name Cache
|
|
|
|
@cindex file name caching
|
|
@cindex cache of file names
|
|
@pindex find
|
|
@kindex C-@key{TAB}
|
|
@findex file-cache-minibuffer-complete
|
|
You can use the @dfn{file name cache} to make it easy to locate a
|
|
file by name, without having to remember exactly where it is located.
|
|
When typing a file name in the minibuffer, @kbd{C-@key{tab}}
|
|
(@code{file-cache-minibuffer-complete}) completes it using the file
|
|
name cache. If you repeat @kbd{C-@key{tab}}, that cycles through the
|
|
possible completions of what you had originally typed. Note that the
|
|
@kbd{C-@key{tab}} character cannot be typed on most text-only
|
|
terminals.
|
|
|
|
The file name cache does not fill up automatically. Instead, you
|
|
load file names into the cache using these commands:
|
|
|
|
@findex file-cache-add-directory
|
|
@table @kbd
|
|
@item M-x file-cache-add-directory @key{RET} @var{directory} @key{RET}
|
|
Add each file name in @var{directory} to the file name cache.
|
|
@item M-x file-cache-add-directory-using-find @key{RET} @var{directory} @key{RET}
|
|
Add each file name in @var{directory} and all of its nested
|
|
subdirectories to the file name cache.
|
|
@item M-x file-cache-add-directory-using-locate @key{RET} @var{directory} @key{RET}
|
|
Add each file name in @var{directory} and all of its nested
|
|
subdirectories to the file name cache, using @command{locate} to find
|
|
them all.
|
|
@item M-x file-cache-add-directory-list @key{RET} @var{variable} @key{RET}
|
|
Add each file name in each directory listed in @var{variable}
|
|
to the file name cache. @var{variable} should be a Lisp variable
|
|
such as @code{load-path} or @code{exec-path}, whose value is a list
|
|
of directory names.
|
|
@item M-x file-cache-clear-cache @key{RET}
|
|
Clear the cache; that is, remove all file names from it.
|
|
@end table
|
|
|
|
@node File Conveniences
|
|
@section Convenience Features for Finding Files
|
|
|
|
@findex recentf-mode
|
|
@vindex recentf-mode
|
|
@findex recentf-save-list
|
|
@findex recentf-edit-list
|
|
If you enable Recentf mode, with @kbd{M-x recentf-mode}, the
|
|
@samp{File} menu includes a submenu containing a list of recently
|
|
opened files. @kbd{M-x recentf-save-list} saves the current
|
|
@code{recent-file-list} to a file, and @kbd{M-x recentf-edit-list}
|
|
edits it.
|
|
|
|
@findex auto-image-file-mode
|
|
@findex mode, auto-image-file
|
|
@cindex images, visiting
|
|
@cindex visiting image files
|
|
@vindex image-file-name-regexps
|
|
@vindex image-file-name-extensions
|
|
When Auto-image-file minor mode is enabled, visiting an image file
|
|
displays it as an image, not as text. Likewise, inserting an image
|
|
file into a buffer inserts it as an image. This works only when Emacs
|
|
can display the relevant image type. The variables
|
|
@code{image-file-name-extensions} or @code{image-file-name-regexps}
|
|
control which file names are recognized as containing images.
|
|
|
|
The @kbd{M-x ffap} command generalizes @code{find-file} with more
|
|
powerful heuristic defaults (@pxref{FFAP}), often based on the text at
|
|
point. Partial Completion mode offers other features extending
|
|
@code{find-file}, which can be used with @code{ffap}.
|
|
@xref{Completion Options}.
|