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1895 lines
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1895 lines
57 KiB
Plaintext
@c -*-texinfo-*-
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@c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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@c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2001,
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@c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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@c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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@setfilename ../../info/lists
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@node Lists, Sequences Arrays Vectors, Strings and Characters, Top
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@chapter Lists
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@cindex lists
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@cindex element (of list)
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A @dfn{list} represents a sequence of zero or more elements (which may
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be any Lisp objects). The important difference between lists and
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vectors is that two or more lists can share part of their structure; in
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addition, you can insert or delete elements in a list without copying
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the whole list.
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@menu
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* Cons Cells:: How lists are made out of cons cells.
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* List-related Predicates:: Is this object a list? Comparing two lists.
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* List Elements:: Extracting the pieces of a list.
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* Building Lists:: Creating list structure.
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* List Variables:: Modifying lists stored in variables.
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* Modifying Lists:: Storing new pieces into an existing list.
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* Sets And Lists:: A list can represent a finite mathematical set.
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* Association Lists:: A list can represent a finite relation or mapping.
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* Rings:: Managing a fixed-size ring of objects.
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@end menu
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@node Cons Cells
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@section Lists and Cons Cells
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@cindex lists and cons cells
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Lists in Lisp are not a primitive data type; they are built up from
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@dfn{cons cells}. A cons cell is a data object that represents an
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ordered pair. That is, it has two slots, and each slot @dfn{holds}, or
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@dfn{refers to}, some Lisp object. One slot is known as the @sc{car},
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and the other is known as the @sc{cdr}. (These names are traditional;
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see @ref{Cons Cell Type}.) @sc{cdr} is pronounced ``could-er.''
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We say that ``the @sc{car} of this cons cell is'' whatever object
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its @sc{car} slot currently holds, and likewise for the @sc{cdr}.
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A list is a series of cons cells ``chained together,'' so that each
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cell refers to the next one. There is one cons cell for each element of
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the list. By convention, the @sc{car}s of the cons cells hold the
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elements of the list, and the @sc{cdr}s are used to chain the list: the
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@sc{cdr} slot of each cons cell refers to the following cons cell. The
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@sc{cdr} of the last cons cell is @code{nil}. This asymmetry between
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the @sc{car} and the @sc{cdr} is entirely a matter of convention; at the
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level of cons cells, the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} slots have the same
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characteristics.
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@cindex true list
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Since @code{nil} is the conventional value to put in the @sc{cdr} of
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the last cons cell in the list, we call that case a @dfn{true list}.
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In Lisp, we consider the symbol @code{nil} a list as well as a
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symbol; it is the list with no elements. For convenience, the symbol
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@code{nil} is considered to have @code{nil} as its @sc{cdr} (and also
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as its @sc{car}). Therefore, the @sc{cdr} of a true list is always a
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true list.
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@cindex dotted list
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@cindex circular list
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If the @sc{cdr} of a list's last cons cell is some other value,
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neither @code{nil} nor another cons cell, we call the structure a
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@dfn{dotted list}, since its printed representation would use
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@samp{.}. There is one other possibility: some cons cell's @sc{cdr}
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could point to one of the previous cons cells in the list. We call
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that structure a @dfn{circular list}.
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For some purposes, it does not matter whether a list is true,
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circular or dotted. If the program doesn't look far enough down the
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list to see the @sc{cdr} of the final cons cell, it won't care.
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However, some functions that operate on lists demand true lists and
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signal errors if given a dotted list. Most functions that try to find
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the end of a list enter infinite loops if given a circular list.
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@cindex list structure
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Because most cons cells are used as part of lists, the phrase
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@dfn{list structure} has come to mean any structure made out of cons
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cells.
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The @sc{cdr} of any nonempty true list @var{l} is a list containing all the
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elements of @var{l} except the first.
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@xref{Cons Cell Type}, for the read and print syntax of cons cells and
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lists, and for ``box and arrow'' illustrations of lists.
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@node List-related Predicates
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@section Predicates on Lists
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The following predicates test whether a Lisp object is an atom,
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whether it is a cons cell or is a list, or whether it is the
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distinguished object @code{nil}. (Many of these predicates can be
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defined in terms of the others, but they are used so often that it is
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worth having all of them.)
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@defun consp object
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This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil}
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otherwise. @code{nil} is not a cons cell, although it @emph{is} a list.
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@end defun
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@defun atom object
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This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is an atom, @code{nil}
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otherwise. All objects except cons cells are atoms. The symbol
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@code{nil} is an atom and is also a list; it is the only Lisp object
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that is both.
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@example
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(atom @var{object}) @equiv{} (not (consp @var{object}))
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@end example
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@end defun
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@defun listp object
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This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a cons cell or
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@code{nil}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}.
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@example
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@group
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(listp '(1))
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@result{} t
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@end group
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@group
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(listp '())
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@result{} t
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@end group
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@end example
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@end defun
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@defun nlistp object
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This function is the opposite of @code{listp}: it returns @code{t} if
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@var{object} is not a list. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}.
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@example
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(listp @var{object}) @equiv{} (not (nlistp @var{object}))
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@end example
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@end defun
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@defun null object
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This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is @code{nil}, and
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returns @code{nil} otherwise. This function is identical to @code{not},
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but as a matter of clarity we use @code{null} when @var{object} is
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considered a list and @code{not} when it is considered a truth value
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(see @code{not} in @ref{Combining Conditions}).
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@example
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@group
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(null '(1))
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@result{} nil
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@end group
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@group
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(null '())
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@result{} t
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@end group
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@end example
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@end defun
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@node List Elements
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@section Accessing Elements of Lists
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@cindex list elements
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@defun car cons-cell
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This function returns the value referred to by the first slot of the
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cons cell @var{cons-cell}. In other words, it returns the @sc{car} of
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@var{cons-cell}.
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As a special case, if @var{cons-cell} is @code{nil}, this function
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returns @code{nil}. Therefore, any list is a valid argument. An
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error is signaled if the argument is not a cons cell or @code{nil}.
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@example
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@group
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(car '(a b c))
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@result{} a
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@end group
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@group
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(car '())
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@result{} nil
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@end group
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@end example
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@end defun
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@defun cdr cons-cell
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This function returns the value referred to by the second slot of the
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cons cell @var{cons-cell}. In other words, it returns the @sc{cdr} of
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@var{cons-cell}.
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As a special case, if @var{cons-cell} is @code{nil}, this function
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returns @code{nil}; therefore, any list is a valid argument. An error
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is signaled if the argument is not a cons cell or @code{nil}.
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@example
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@group
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(cdr '(a b c))
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@result{} (b c)
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@end group
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@group
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(cdr '())
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@result{} nil
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@end group
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@end example
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@end defun
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@defun car-safe object
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This function lets you take the @sc{car} of a cons cell while avoiding
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errors for other data types. It returns the @sc{car} of @var{object} if
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@var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} otherwise. This is in contrast
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to @code{car}, which signals an error if @var{object} is not a list.
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@example
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@group
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(car-safe @var{object})
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@equiv{}
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(let ((x @var{object}))
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(if (consp x)
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(car x)
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nil))
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@end group
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@end example
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@end defun
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@defun cdr-safe object
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This function lets you take the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell while
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avoiding errors for other data types. It returns the @sc{cdr} of
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@var{object} if @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} otherwise.
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This is in contrast to @code{cdr}, which signals an error if
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@var{object} is not a list.
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@example
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@group
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(cdr-safe @var{object})
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@equiv{}
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(let ((x @var{object}))
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(if (consp x)
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(cdr x)
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nil))
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@end group
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@end example
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@end defun
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@defmac pop listname
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This macro is a way of examining the @sc{car} of a list,
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and taking it off the list, all at once.
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It operates on the list which is stored in the symbol @var{listname}.
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It removes this element from the list by setting @var{listname}
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to the @sc{cdr} of its old value---but it also returns the @sc{car}
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of that list, which is the element being removed.
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@example
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x
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@result{} (a b c)
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(pop x)
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@result{} a
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x
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@result{} (b c)
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@end example
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@end defmac
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@defun nth n list
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@anchor{Definition of nth}
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This function returns the @var{n}th element of @var{list}. Elements
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are numbered starting with zero, so the @sc{car} of @var{list} is
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element number zero. If the length of @var{list} is @var{n} or less,
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the value is @code{nil}.
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If @var{n} is negative, @code{nth} returns the first element of
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@var{list}.
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@example
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@group
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(nth 2 '(1 2 3 4))
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@result{} 3
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@end group
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@group
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(nth 10 '(1 2 3 4))
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@result{} nil
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@end group
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@group
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(nth -3 '(1 2 3 4))
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@result{} 1
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(nth n x) @equiv{} (car (nthcdr n x))
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@end group
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@end example
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The function @code{elt} is similar, but applies to any kind of sequence.
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For historical reasons, it takes its arguments in the opposite order.
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@xref{Sequence Functions}.
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@end defun
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@defun nthcdr n list
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This function returns the @var{n}th @sc{cdr} of @var{list}. In other
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words, it skips past the first @var{n} links of @var{list} and returns
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what follows.
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If @var{n} is zero or negative, @code{nthcdr} returns all of
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@var{list}. If the length of @var{list} is @var{n} or less,
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@code{nthcdr} returns @code{nil}.
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@example
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@group
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(nthcdr 1 '(1 2 3 4))
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@result{} (2 3 4)
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@end group
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@group
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(nthcdr 10 '(1 2 3 4))
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@result{} nil
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@end group
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@group
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(nthcdr -3 '(1 2 3 4))
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@result{} (1 2 3 4)
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@end group
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@end example
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@end defun
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@defun last list &optional n
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This function returns the last link of @var{list}. The @code{car} of
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this link is the list's last element. If @var{list} is null,
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@code{nil} is returned. If @var{n} is non-@code{nil}, the
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@var{n}th-to-last link is returned instead, or the whole of @var{list}
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if @var{n} is bigger than @var{list}'s length.
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@end defun
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@defun safe-length list
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@anchor{Definition of safe-length}
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This function returns the length of @var{list}, with no risk of either
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an error or an infinite loop. It generally returns the number of
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distinct cons cells in the list. However, for circular lists,
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the value is just an upper bound; it is often too large.
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If @var{list} is not @code{nil} or a cons cell, @code{safe-length}
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returns 0.
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@end defun
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The most common way to compute the length of a list, when you are not
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worried that it may be circular, is with @code{length}. @xref{Sequence
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Functions}.
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@defun caar cons-cell
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This is the same as @code{(car (car @var{cons-cell}))}.
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@end defun
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@defun cadr cons-cell
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This is the same as @code{(car (cdr @var{cons-cell}))}
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or @code{(nth 1 @var{cons-cell})}.
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@end defun
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@defun cdar cons-cell
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This is the same as @code{(cdr (car @var{cons-cell}))}.
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@end defun
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@defun cddr cons-cell
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This is the same as @code{(cdr (cdr @var{cons-cell}))}
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or @code{(nthcdr 2 @var{cons-cell})}.
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@end defun
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@defun butlast x &optional n
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This function returns the list @var{x} with the last element,
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or the last @var{n} elements, removed. If @var{n} is greater
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than zero it makes a copy of the list so as not to damage the
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original list. In general, @code{(append (butlast @var{x} @var{n})
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(last @var{x} @var{n}))} will return a list equal to @var{x}.
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@end defun
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@defun nbutlast x &optional n
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This is a version of @code{butlast} that works by destructively
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modifying the @code{cdr} of the appropriate element, rather than
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making a copy of the list.
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@end defun
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@node Building Lists
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@comment node-name, next, previous, up
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@section Building Cons Cells and Lists
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@cindex cons cells
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@cindex building lists
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Many functions build lists, as lists reside at the very heart of Lisp.
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@code{cons} is the fundamental list-building function; however, it is
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interesting to note that @code{list} is used more times in the source
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code for Emacs than @code{cons}.
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@defun cons object1 object2
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This function is the most basic function for building new list
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structure. It creates a new cons cell, making @var{object1} the
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@sc{car}, and @var{object2} the @sc{cdr}. It then returns the new
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cons cell. The arguments @var{object1} and @var{object2} may be any
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Lisp objects, but most often @var{object2} is a list.
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@example
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@group
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(cons 1 '(2))
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@result{} (1 2)
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@end group
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@group
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(cons 1 '())
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@result{} (1)
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@end group
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@group
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(cons 1 2)
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@result{} (1 . 2)
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@end group
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@end example
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@cindex consing
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@code{cons} is often used to add a single element to the front of a
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list. This is called @dfn{consing the element onto the list}.
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@footnote{There is no strictly equivalent way to add an element to
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the end of a list. You can use @code{(append @var{listname} (list
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@var{newelt}))}, which creates a whole new list by copying @var{listname}
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and adding @var{newelt} to its end. Or you can use @code{(nconc
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@var{listname} (list @var{newelt}))}, which modifies @var{listname}
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by following all the @sc{cdr}s and then replacing the terminating
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@code{nil}. Compare this to adding an element to the beginning of a
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list with @code{cons}, which neither copies nor modifies the list.}
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For example:
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@example
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(setq list (cons newelt list))
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@end example
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Note that there is no conflict between the variable named @code{list}
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used in this example and the function named @code{list} described below;
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any symbol can serve both purposes.
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@end defun
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@defun list &rest objects
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This function creates a list with @var{objects} as its elements. The
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resulting list is always @code{nil}-terminated. If no @var{objects}
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are given, the empty list is returned.
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@example
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@group
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(list 1 2 3 4 5)
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@result{} (1 2 3 4 5)
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@end group
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@group
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(list 1 2 '(3 4 5) 'foo)
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@result{} (1 2 (3 4 5) foo)
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@end group
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@group
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(list)
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@result{} nil
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@end group
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@end example
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@end defun
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@defun make-list length object
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This function creates a list of @var{length} elements, in which each
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element is @var{object}. Compare @code{make-list} with
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@code{make-string} (@pxref{Creating Strings}).
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@example
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@group
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(make-list 3 'pigs)
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@result{} (pigs pigs pigs)
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@end group
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@group
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(make-list 0 'pigs)
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@result{} nil
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@end group
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@group
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(setq l (make-list 3 '(a b))
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@result{} ((a b) (a b) (a b))
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(eq (car l) (cadr l))
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@result{} t
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@end group
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@end example
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@end defun
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@defun append &rest sequences
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@cindex copying lists
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This function returns a list containing all the elements of
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@var{sequences}. The @var{sequences} may be lists, vectors,
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bool-vectors, or strings, but the last one should usually be a list.
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All arguments except the last one are copied, so none of the arguments
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is altered. (See @code{nconc} in @ref{Rearrangement}, for a way to join
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lists with no copying.)
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More generally, the final argument to @code{append} may be any Lisp
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object. The final argument is not copied or converted; it becomes the
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@sc{cdr} of the last cons cell in the new list. If the final argument
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is itself a list, then its elements become in effect elements of the
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result list. If the final element is not a list, the result is a
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dotted list since its final @sc{cdr} is not @code{nil} as required
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in a true list.
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@end defun
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|
|
Here is an example of using @code{append}:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(setq trees '(pine oak))
|
|
@result{} (pine oak)
|
|
(setq more-trees (append '(maple birch) trees))
|
|
@result{} (maple birch pine oak)
|
|
@end group
|
|
|
|
@group
|
|
trees
|
|
@result{} (pine oak)
|
|
more-trees
|
|
@result{} (maple birch pine oak)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
(eq trees (cdr (cdr more-trees)))
|
|
@result{} t
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
You can see how @code{append} works by looking at a box diagram. The
|
|
variable @code{trees} is set to the list @code{(pine oak)} and then the
|
|
variable @code{more-trees} is set to the list @code{(maple birch pine
|
|
oak)}. However, the variable @code{trees} continues to refer to the
|
|
original list:
|
|
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
@group
|
|
more-trees trees
|
|
| |
|
|
| --- --- --- --- -> --- --- --- ---
|
|
--> | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil
|
|
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
|
|
| | | |
|
|
| | | |
|
|
--> maple -->birch --> pine --> oak
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
|
|
An empty sequence contributes nothing to the value returned by
|
|
@code{append}. As a consequence of this, a final @code{nil} argument
|
|
forces a copy of the previous argument:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
trees
|
|
@result{} (pine oak)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
(setq wood (append trees nil))
|
|
@result{} (pine oak)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
wood
|
|
@result{} (pine oak)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
(eq wood trees)
|
|
@result{} nil
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
@noindent
|
|
This once was the usual way to copy a list, before the function
|
|
@code{copy-sequence} was invented. @xref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}.
|
|
|
|
Here we show the use of vectors and strings as arguments to @code{append}:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(append [a b] "cd" nil)
|
|
@result{} (a b 99 100)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
With the help of @code{apply} (@pxref{Calling Functions}), we can append
|
|
all the lists in a list of lists:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil))
|
|
@result{} (a b c x y z)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
If no @var{sequences} are given, @code{nil} is returned:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(append)
|
|
@result{} nil
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
Here are some examples where the final argument is not a list:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
(append '(x y) 'z)
|
|
@result{} (x y . z)
|
|
(append '(x y) [z])
|
|
@result{} (x y . [z])
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
@noindent
|
|
The second example shows that when the final argument is a sequence but
|
|
not a list, the sequence's elements do not become elements of the
|
|
resulting list. Instead, the sequence becomes the final @sc{cdr}, like
|
|
any other non-list final argument.
|
|
|
|
@defun reverse list
|
|
This function creates a new list whose elements are the elements of
|
|
@var{list}, but in reverse order. The original argument @var{list} is
|
|
@emph{not} altered.
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(setq x '(1 2 3 4))
|
|
@result{} (1 2 3 4)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
(reverse x)
|
|
@result{} (4 3 2 1)
|
|
x
|
|
@result{} (1 2 3 4)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun copy-tree tree &optional vecp
|
|
This function returns a copy of the tree @code{tree}. If @var{tree} is a
|
|
cons cell, this makes a new cons cell with the same @sc{car} and
|
|
@sc{cdr}, then recursively copies the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} in the
|
|
same way.
|
|
|
|
Normally, when @var{tree} is anything other than a cons cell,
|
|
@code{copy-tree} simply returns @var{tree}. However, if @var{vecp} is
|
|
non-@code{nil}, it copies vectors too (and operates recursively on
|
|
their elements).
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun number-sequence from &optional to separation
|
|
This returns a list of numbers starting with @var{from} and
|
|
incrementing by @var{separation}, and ending at or just before
|
|
@var{to}. @var{separation} can be positive or negative and defaults
|
|
to 1. If @var{to} is @code{nil} or numerically equal to @var{from},
|
|
the value is the one-element list @code{(@var{from})}. If @var{to} is
|
|
less than @var{from} with a positive @var{separation}, or greater than
|
|
@var{from} with a negative @var{separation}, the value is @code{nil}
|
|
because those arguments specify an empty sequence.
|
|
|
|
If @var{separation} is 0 and @var{to} is neither @code{nil} nor
|
|
numerically equal to @var{from}, @code{number-sequence} signals an
|
|
error, since those arguments specify an infinite sequence.
|
|
|
|
All arguments can be integers or floating point numbers. However,
|
|
floating point arguments can be tricky, because floating point
|
|
arithmetic is inexact. For instance, depending on the machine, it may
|
|
quite well happen that @code{(number-sequence 0.4 0.6 0.2)} returns
|
|
the one element list @code{(0.4)}, whereas
|
|
@code{(number-sequence 0.4 0.8 0.2)} returns a list with three
|
|
elements. The @var{n}th element of the list is computed by the exact
|
|
formula @code{(+ @var{from} (* @var{n} @var{separation}))}. Thus, if
|
|
one wants to make sure that @var{to} is included in the list, one can
|
|
pass an expression of this exact type for @var{to}. Alternatively,
|
|
one can replace @var{to} with a slightly larger value (or a slightly
|
|
more negative value if @var{separation} is negative).
|
|
|
|
Some examples:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
(number-sequence 4 9)
|
|
@result{} (4 5 6 7 8 9)
|
|
(number-sequence 9 4 -1)
|
|
@result{} (9 8 7 6 5 4)
|
|
(number-sequence 9 4 -2)
|
|
@result{} (9 7 5)
|
|
(number-sequence 8)
|
|
@result{} (8)
|
|
(number-sequence 8 5)
|
|
@result{} nil
|
|
(number-sequence 5 8 -1)
|
|
@result{} nil
|
|
(number-sequence 1.5 6 2)
|
|
@result{} (1.5 3.5 5.5)
|
|
@end example
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@node List Variables
|
|
@section Modifying List Variables
|
|
|
|
These functions, and one macro, provide convenient ways
|
|
to modify a list which is stored in a variable.
|
|
|
|
@defmac push newelt listname
|
|
This macro provides an alternative way to write
|
|
@code{(setq @var{listname} (cons @var{newelt} @var{listname}))}.
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
(setq l '(a b))
|
|
@result{} (a b)
|
|
(push 'c l)
|
|
@result{} (c a b)
|
|
l
|
|
@result{} (c a b)
|
|
@end example
|
|
@end defmac
|
|
|
|
Two functions modify lists that are the values of variables.
|
|
|
|
@defun add-to-list symbol element &optional append compare-fn
|
|
This function sets the variable @var{symbol} by consing @var{element}
|
|
onto the old value, if @var{element} is not already a member of that
|
|
value. It returns the resulting list, whether updated or not. The
|
|
value of @var{symbol} had better be a list already before the call.
|
|
@code{add-to-list} uses @var{compare-fn} to compare @var{element}
|
|
against existing list members; if @var{compare-fn} is @code{nil}, it
|
|
uses @code{equal}.
|
|
|
|
Normally, if @var{element} is added, it is added to the front of
|
|
@var{symbol}, but if the optional argument @var{append} is
|
|
non-@code{nil}, it is added at the end.
|
|
|
|
The argument @var{symbol} is not implicitly quoted; @code{add-to-list}
|
|
is an ordinary function, like @code{set} and unlike @code{setq}. Quote
|
|
the argument yourself if that is what you want.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
Here's a scenario showing how to use @code{add-to-list}:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
(setq foo '(a b))
|
|
@result{} (a b)
|
|
|
|
(add-to-list 'foo 'c) ;; @r{Add @code{c}.}
|
|
@result{} (c a b)
|
|
|
|
(add-to-list 'foo 'b) ;; @r{No effect.}
|
|
@result{} (c a b)
|
|
|
|
foo ;; @r{@code{foo} was changed.}
|
|
@result{} (c a b)
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
An equivalent expression for @code{(add-to-list '@var{var}
|
|
@var{value})} is this:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
(or (member @var{value} @var{var})
|
|
(setq @var{var} (cons @var{value} @var{var})))
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
@defun add-to-ordered-list symbol element &optional order
|
|
This function sets the variable @var{symbol} by inserting
|
|
@var{element} into the old value, which must be a list, at the
|
|
position specified by @var{order}. If @var{element} is already a
|
|
member of the list, its position in the list is adjusted according
|
|
to @var{order}. Membership is tested using @code{eq}.
|
|
This function returns the resulting list, whether updated or not.
|
|
|
|
The @var{order} is typically a number (integer or float), and the
|
|
elements of the list are sorted in non-decreasing numerical order.
|
|
|
|
@var{order} may also be omitted or @code{nil}. Then the numeric order
|
|
of @var{element} stays unchanged if it already has one; otherwise,
|
|
@var{element} has no numeric order. Elements without a numeric list
|
|
order are placed at the end of the list, in no particular order.
|
|
|
|
Any other value for @var{order} removes the numeric order of @var{element}
|
|
if it already has one; otherwise, it is equivalent to @code{nil}.
|
|
|
|
The argument @var{symbol} is not implicitly quoted;
|
|
@code{add-to-ordered-list} is an ordinary function, like @code{set}
|
|
and unlike @code{setq}. Quote the argument yourself if that is what
|
|
you want.
|
|
|
|
The ordering information is stored in a hash table on @var{symbol}'s
|
|
@code{list-order} property.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
Here's a scenario showing how to use @code{add-to-ordered-list}:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
(setq foo '())
|
|
@result{} nil
|
|
|
|
(add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'a 1) ;; @r{Add @code{a}.}
|
|
@result{} (a)
|
|
|
|
(add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'c 3) ;; @r{Add @code{c}.}
|
|
@result{} (a c)
|
|
|
|
(add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'b 2) ;; @r{Add @code{b}.}
|
|
@result{} (a b c)
|
|
|
|
(add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'b 4) ;; @r{Move @code{b}.}
|
|
@result{} (a c b)
|
|
|
|
(add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'd) ;; @r{Append @code{d}.}
|
|
@result{} (a c b d)
|
|
|
|
(add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'e) ;; @r{Add @code{e}}.
|
|
@result{} (a c b e d)
|
|
|
|
foo ;; @r{@code{foo} was changed.}
|
|
@result{} (a c b e d)
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
@node Modifying Lists
|
|
@section Modifying Existing List Structure
|
|
@cindex destructive list operations
|
|
|
|
You can modify the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} contents of a cons cell with the
|
|
primitives @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr}. We call these ``destructive''
|
|
operations because they change existing list structure.
|
|
|
|
@cindex CL note---@code{rplaca} vs @code{setcar}
|
|
@quotation
|
|
@findex rplaca
|
|
@findex rplacd
|
|
@b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp uses functions @code{rplaca} and
|
|
@code{rplacd} to alter list structure; they change structure the same
|
|
way as @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr}, but the Common Lisp functions
|
|
return the cons cell while @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr} return the
|
|
new @sc{car} or @sc{cdr}.
|
|
@end quotation
|
|
|
|
@menu
|
|
* Setcar:: Replacing an element in a list.
|
|
* Setcdr:: Replacing part of the list backbone.
|
|
This can be used to remove or add elements.
|
|
* Rearrangement:: Reordering the elements in a list; combining lists.
|
|
@end menu
|
|
|
|
@node Setcar
|
|
@subsection Altering List Elements with @code{setcar}
|
|
|
|
Changing the @sc{car} of a cons cell is done with @code{setcar}. When
|
|
used on a list, @code{setcar} replaces one element of a list with a
|
|
different element.
|
|
|
|
@defun setcar cons object
|
|
This function stores @var{object} as the new @sc{car} of @var{cons},
|
|
replacing its previous @sc{car}. In other words, it changes the
|
|
@sc{car} slot of @var{cons} to refer to @var{object}. It returns the
|
|
value @var{object}. For example:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(setq x '(1 2))
|
|
@result{} (1 2)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
(setcar x 4)
|
|
@result{} 4
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
x
|
|
@result{} (4 2)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
When a cons cell is part of the shared structure of several lists,
|
|
storing a new @sc{car} into the cons changes one element of each of
|
|
these lists. Here is an example:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
;; @r{Create two lists that are partly shared.}
|
|
(setq x1 '(a b c))
|
|
@result{} (a b c)
|
|
(setq x2 (cons 'z (cdr x1)))
|
|
@result{} (z b c)
|
|
@end group
|
|
|
|
@group
|
|
;; @r{Replace the @sc{car} of a shared link.}
|
|
(setcar (cdr x1) 'foo)
|
|
@result{} foo
|
|
x1 ; @r{Both lists are changed.}
|
|
@result{} (a foo c)
|
|
x2
|
|
@result{} (z foo c)
|
|
@end group
|
|
|
|
@group
|
|
;; @r{Replace the @sc{car} of a link that is not shared.}
|
|
(setcar x1 'baz)
|
|
@result{} baz
|
|
x1 ; @r{Only one list is changed.}
|
|
@result{} (baz foo c)
|
|
x2
|
|
@result{} (z foo c)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
Here is a graphical depiction of the shared structure of the two lists
|
|
in the variables @code{x1} and @code{x2}, showing why replacing @code{b}
|
|
changes them both:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
--- --- --- --- --- ---
|
|
x1---> | | |----> | | |--> | | |--> nil
|
|
--- --- --- --- --- ---
|
|
| --> | |
|
|
| | | |
|
|
--> a | --> b --> c
|
|
|
|
|
--- --- |
|
|
x2--> | | |--
|
|
--- ---
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
--> z
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
Here is an alternative form of box diagram, showing the same relationship:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
x1:
|
|
-------------- -------------- --------------
|
|
| car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr |
|
|
| a | o------->| b | o------->| c | nil |
|
|
| | | -->| | | | | |
|
|
-------------- | -------------- --------------
|
|
|
|
|
x2: |
|
|
-------------- |
|
|
| car | cdr | |
|
|
| z | o----
|
|
| | |
|
|
--------------
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
@node Setcdr
|
|
@subsection Altering the CDR of a List
|
|
|
|
The lowest-level primitive for modifying a @sc{cdr} is @code{setcdr}:
|
|
|
|
@defun setcdr cons object
|
|
This function stores @var{object} as the new @sc{cdr} of @var{cons},
|
|
replacing its previous @sc{cdr}. In other words, it changes the
|
|
@sc{cdr} slot of @var{cons} to refer to @var{object}. It returns the
|
|
value @var{object}.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
Here is an example of replacing the @sc{cdr} of a list with a
|
|
different list. All but the first element of the list are removed in
|
|
favor of a different sequence of elements. The first element is
|
|
unchanged, because it resides in the @sc{car} of the list, and is not
|
|
reached via the @sc{cdr}.
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(setq x '(1 2 3))
|
|
@result{} (1 2 3)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
(setcdr x '(4))
|
|
@result{} (4)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
x
|
|
@result{} (1 4)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
You can delete elements from the middle of a list by altering the
|
|
@sc{cdr}s of the cons cells in the list. For example, here we delete
|
|
the second element, @code{b}, from the list @code{(a b c)}, by changing
|
|
the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(setq x1 '(a b c))
|
|
@result{} (a b c)
|
|
(setcdr x1 (cdr (cdr x1)))
|
|
@result{} (c)
|
|
x1
|
|
@result{} (a c)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
Here is the result in box notation:
|
|
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
@group
|
|
--------------------
|
|
| |
|
|
-------------- | -------------- | --------------
|
|
| car | cdr | | | car | cdr | -->| car | cdr |
|
|
| a | o----- | b | o-------->| c | nil |
|
|
| | | | | | | | |
|
|
-------------- -------------- --------------
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
|
|
@noindent
|
|
The second cons cell, which previously held the element @code{b}, still
|
|
exists and its @sc{car} is still @code{b}, but it no longer forms part
|
|
of this list.
|
|
|
|
It is equally easy to insert a new element by changing @sc{cdr}s:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(setq x1 '(a b c))
|
|
@result{} (a b c)
|
|
(setcdr x1 (cons 'd (cdr x1)))
|
|
@result{} (d b c)
|
|
x1
|
|
@result{} (a d b c)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
Here is this result in box notation:
|
|
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
@group
|
|
-------------- ------------- -------------
|
|
| car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr |
|
|
| a | o | -->| b | o------->| c | nil |
|
|
| | | | | | | | | | |
|
|
--------- | -- | ------------- -------------
|
|
| |
|
|
----- --------
|
|
| |
|
|
| --------------- |
|
|
| | car | cdr | |
|
|
-->| d | o------
|
|
| | |
|
|
---------------
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
|
|
@node Rearrangement
|
|
@subsection Functions that Rearrange Lists
|
|
@cindex rearrangement of lists
|
|
@cindex modification of lists
|
|
|
|
Here are some functions that rearrange lists ``destructively'' by
|
|
modifying the @sc{cdr}s of their component cons cells. We call these
|
|
functions ``destructive'' because they chew up the original lists passed
|
|
to them as arguments, relinking their cons cells to form a new list that
|
|
is the returned value.
|
|
|
|
@ifnottex
|
|
See @code{delq}, in @ref{Sets And Lists}, for another function
|
|
that modifies cons cells.
|
|
@end ifnottex
|
|
@iftex
|
|
The function @code{delq} in the following section is another example
|
|
of destructive list manipulation.
|
|
@end iftex
|
|
|
|
@defun nconc &rest lists
|
|
@cindex concatenating lists
|
|
@cindex joining lists
|
|
This function returns a list containing all the elements of @var{lists}.
|
|
Unlike @code{append} (@pxref{Building Lists}), the @var{lists} are
|
|
@emph{not} copied. Instead, the last @sc{cdr} of each of the
|
|
@var{lists} is changed to refer to the following list. The last of the
|
|
@var{lists} is not altered. For example:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(setq x '(1 2 3))
|
|
@result{} (1 2 3)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
(nconc x '(4 5))
|
|
@result{} (1 2 3 4 5)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
x
|
|
@result{} (1 2 3 4 5)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
Since the last argument of @code{nconc} is not itself modified, it is
|
|
reasonable to use a constant list, such as @code{'(4 5)}, as in the
|
|
above example. For the same reason, the last argument need not be a
|
|
list:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(setq x '(1 2 3))
|
|
@result{} (1 2 3)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
(nconc x 'z)
|
|
@result{} (1 2 3 . z)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
x
|
|
@result{} (1 2 3 . z)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
However, the other arguments (all but the last) must be lists.
|
|
|
|
A common pitfall is to use a quoted constant list as a non-last
|
|
argument to @code{nconc}. If you do this, your program will change
|
|
each time you run it! Here is what happens:
|
|
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
@group
|
|
(defun add-foo (x) ; @r{We want this function to add}
|
|
(nconc '(foo) x)) ; @r{@code{foo} to the front of its arg.}
|
|
@end group
|
|
|
|
@group
|
|
(symbol-function 'add-foo)
|
|
@result{} (lambda (x) (nconc (quote (foo)) x))
|
|
@end group
|
|
|
|
@group
|
|
(setq xx (add-foo '(1 2))) ; @r{It seems to work.}
|
|
@result{} (foo 1 2)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
(setq xy (add-foo '(3 4))) ; @r{What happened?}
|
|
@result{} (foo 1 2 3 4)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
(eq xx xy)
|
|
@result{} t
|
|
@end group
|
|
|
|
@group
|
|
(symbol-function 'add-foo)
|
|
@result{} (lambda (x) (nconc (quote (foo 1 2 3 4) x)))
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun nreverse list
|
|
@cindex reversing a list
|
|
This function reverses the order of the elements of @var{list}.
|
|
Unlike @code{reverse}, @code{nreverse} alters its argument by reversing
|
|
the @sc{cdr}s in the cons cells forming the list. The cons cell that
|
|
used to be the last one in @var{list} becomes the first cons cell of the
|
|
value.
|
|
|
|
For example:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(setq x '(a b c))
|
|
@result{} (a b c)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
x
|
|
@result{} (a b c)
|
|
(nreverse x)
|
|
@result{} (c b a)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
;; @r{The cons cell that was first is now last.}
|
|
x
|
|
@result{} (a)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
To avoid confusion, we usually store the result of @code{nreverse}
|
|
back in the same variable which held the original list:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
(setq x (nreverse x))
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
Here is the @code{nreverse} of our favorite example, @code{(a b c)},
|
|
presented graphically:
|
|
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
@group
|
|
@r{Original list head:} @r{Reversed list:}
|
|
------------- ------------- ------------
|
|
| car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr |
|
|
| a | nil |<-- | b | o |<-- | c | o |
|
|
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
|
|
------------- | --------- | - | -------- | -
|
|
| | | |
|
|
------------- ------------
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun sort list predicate
|
|
@cindex stable sort
|
|
@cindex sorting lists
|
|
This function sorts @var{list} stably, though destructively, and
|
|
returns the sorted list. It compares elements using @var{predicate}. A
|
|
stable sort is one in which elements with equal sort keys maintain their
|
|
relative order before and after the sort. Stability is important when
|
|
successive sorts are used to order elements according to different
|
|
criteria.
|
|
|
|
The argument @var{predicate} must be a function that accepts two
|
|
arguments. It is called with two elements of @var{list}. To get an
|
|
increasing order sort, the @var{predicate} should return non-@code{nil} if the
|
|
first element is ``less than'' the second, or @code{nil} if not.
|
|
|
|
The comparison function @var{predicate} must give reliable results for
|
|
any given pair of arguments, at least within a single call to
|
|
@code{sort}. It must be @dfn{antisymmetric}; that is, if @var{a} is
|
|
less than @var{b}, @var{b} must not be less than @var{a}. It must be
|
|
@dfn{transitive}---that is, if @var{a} is less than @var{b}, and @var{b}
|
|
is less than @var{c}, then @var{a} must be less than @var{c}. If you
|
|
use a comparison function which does not meet these requirements, the
|
|
result of @code{sort} is unpredictable.
|
|
|
|
The destructive aspect of @code{sort} is that it rearranges the cons
|
|
cells forming @var{list} by changing @sc{cdr}s. A nondestructive sort
|
|
function would create new cons cells to store the elements in their
|
|
sorted order. If you wish to make a sorted copy without destroying the
|
|
original, copy it first with @code{copy-sequence} and then sort.
|
|
|
|
Sorting does not change the @sc{car}s of the cons cells in @var{list};
|
|
the cons cell that originally contained the element @code{a} in
|
|
@var{list} still has @code{a} in its @sc{car} after sorting, but it now
|
|
appears in a different position in the list due to the change of
|
|
@sc{cdr}s. For example:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(setq nums '(1 3 2 6 5 4 0))
|
|
@result{} (1 3 2 6 5 4 0)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
(sort nums '<)
|
|
@result{} (0 1 2 3 4 5 6)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
nums
|
|
@result{} (1 2 3 4 5 6)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
@noindent
|
|
@strong{Warning}: Note that the list in @code{nums} no longer contains
|
|
0; this is the same cons cell that it was before, but it is no longer
|
|
the first one in the list. Don't assume a variable that formerly held
|
|
the argument now holds the entire sorted list! Instead, save the result
|
|
of @code{sort} and use that. Most often we store the result back into
|
|
the variable that held the original list:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
(setq nums (sort nums '<))
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
@xref{Sorting}, for more functions that perform sorting.
|
|
See @code{documentation} in @ref{Accessing Documentation}, for a
|
|
useful example of @code{sort}.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@node Sets And Lists
|
|
@section Using Lists as Sets
|
|
@cindex lists as sets
|
|
@cindex sets
|
|
|
|
A list can represent an unordered mathematical set---simply consider a
|
|
value an element of a set if it appears in the list, and ignore the
|
|
order of the list. To form the union of two sets, use @code{append} (as
|
|
long as you don't mind having duplicate elements). You can remove
|
|
@code{equal} duplicates using @code{delete-dups}. Other useful
|
|
functions for sets include @code{memq} and @code{delq}, and their
|
|
@code{equal} versions, @code{member} and @code{delete}.
|
|
|
|
@cindex CL note---lack @code{union}, @code{intersection}
|
|
@quotation
|
|
@b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp has functions @code{union} (which
|
|
avoids duplicate elements) and @code{intersection} for set operations,
|
|
but GNU Emacs Lisp does not have them. You can write them in Lisp if
|
|
you wish.
|
|
@end quotation
|
|
|
|
@defun memq object list
|
|
@cindex membership in a list
|
|
This function tests to see whether @var{object} is a member of
|
|
@var{list}. If it is, @code{memq} returns a list starting with the
|
|
first occurrence of @var{object}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}.
|
|
The letter @samp{q} in @code{memq} says that it uses @code{eq} to
|
|
compare @var{object} against the elements of the list. For example:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(memq 'b '(a b c b a))
|
|
@result{} (b c b a)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
(memq '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are not @code{eq}.}
|
|
@result{} nil
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun delq object list
|
|
@cindex deleting list elements
|
|
This function destructively removes all elements @code{eq} to
|
|
@var{object} from @var{list}. The letter @samp{q} in @code{delq} says
|
|
that it uses @code{eq} to compare @var{object} against the elements of
|
|
the list, like @code{memq} and @code{remq}.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
When @code{delq} deletes elements from the front of the list, it does so
|
|
simply by advancing down the list and returning a sublist that starts
|
|
after those elements:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(delq 'a '(a b c)) @equiv{} (cdr '(a b c))
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
When an element to be deleted appears in the middle of the list,
|
|
removing it involves changing the @sc{cdr}s (@pxref{Setcdr}).
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(setq sample-list '(a b c (4)))
|
|
@result{} (a b c (4))
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
(delq 'a sample-list)
|
|
@result{} (b c (4))
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
sample-list
|
|
@result{} (a b c (4))
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
(delq 'c sample-list)
|
|
@result{} (a b (4))
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
sample-list
|
|
@result{} (a b (4))
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
Note that @code{(delq 'c sample-list)} modifies @code{sample-list} to
|
|
splice out the third element, but @code{(delq 'a sample-list)} does not
|
|
splice anything---it just returns a shorter list. Don't assume that a
|
|
variable which formerly held the argument @var{list} now has fewer
|
|
elements, or that it still holds the original list! Instead, save the
|
|
result of @code{delq} and use that. Most often we store the result back
|
|
into the variable that held the original list:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
(setq flowers (delq 'rose flowers))
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
In the following example, the @code{(4)} that @code{delq} attempts to match
|
|
and the @code{(4)} in the @code{sample-list} are not @code{eq}:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(delq '(4) sample-list)
|
|
@result{} (a c (4))
|
|
@end group
|
|
|
|
If you want to delete elements that are @code{equal} to a given value,
|
|
use @code{delete} (see below).
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
@defun remq object list
|
|
This function returns a copy of @var{list}, with all elements removed
|
|
which are @code{eq} to @var{object}. The letter @samp{q} in @code{remq}
|
|
says that it uses @code{eq} to compare @var{object} against the elements
|
|
of @code{list}.
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(setq sample-list '(a b c a b c))
|
|
@result{} (a b c a b c)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
(remq 'a sample-list)
|
|
@result{} (b c b c)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
sample-list
|
|
@result{} (a b c a b c)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun memql object list
|
|
The function @code{memql} tests to see whether @var{object} is a member
|
|
of @var{list}, comparing members with @var{object} using @code{eql},
|
|
so floating point elements are compared by value.
|
|
If @var{object} is a member, @code{memql} returns a list starting with
|
|
its first occurrence in @var{list}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}.
|
|
|
|
Compare this with @code{memq}:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(memql 1.2 '(1.1 1.2 1.3)) ; @r{@code{1.2} and @code{1.2} are @code{eql}.}
|
|
@result{} (1.2 1.3)
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
(memq 1.2 '(1.1 1.2 1.3)) ; @r{@code{1.2} and @code{1.2} are not @code{eq}.}
|
|
@result{} nil
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
The following three functions are like @code{memq}, @code{delq} and
|
|
@code{remq}, but use @code{equal} rather than @code{eq} to compare
|
|
elements. @xref{Equality Predicates}.
|
|
|
|
@defun member object list
|
|
The function @code{member} tests to see whether @var{object} is a member
|
|
of @var{list}, comparing members with @var{object} using @code{equal}.
|
|
If @var{object} is a member, @code{member} returns a list starting with
|
|
its first occurrence in @var{list}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}.
|
|
|
|
Compare this with @code{memq}:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(member '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are @code{equal}.}
|
|
@result{} ((2))
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
(memq '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are not @code{eq}.}
|
|
@result{} nil
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
;; @r{Two strings with the same contents are @code{equal}.}
|
|
(member "foo" '("foo" "bar"))
|
|
@result{} ("foo" "bar")
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun delete object sequence
|
|
If @code{sequence} is a list, this function destructively removes all
|
|
elements @code{equal} to @var{object} from @var{sequence}. For lists,
|
|
@code{delete} is to @code{delq} as @code{member} is to @code{memq}: it
|
|
uses @code{equal} to compare elements with @var{object}, like
|
|
@code{member}; when it finds an element that matches, it cuts the
|
|
element out just as @code{delq} would.
|
|
|
|
If @code{sequence} is a vector or string, @code{delete} returns a copy
|
|
of @code{sequence} with all elements @code{equal} to @code{object}
|
|
removed.
|
|
|
|
For example:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(setq l '((2) (1) (2)))
|
|
(delete '(2) l)
|
|
@result{} ((1))
|
|
l
|
|
@result{} ((2) (1))
|
|
;; @r{If you want to change @code{l} reliably,}
|
|
;; @r{write @code{(setq l (delete elt l))}.}
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
(setq l '((2) (1) (2)))
|
|
(delete '(1) l)
|
|
@result{} ((2) (2))
|
|
l
|
|
@result{} ((2) (2))
|
|
;; @r{In this case, it makes no difference whether you set @code{l},}
|
|
;; @r{but you should do so for the sake of the other case.}
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
(delete '(2) [(2) (1) (2)])
|
|
@result{} [(1)]
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun remove object sequence
|
|
This function is the non-destructive counterpart of @code{delete}. It
|
|
returns a copy of @code{sequence}, a list, vector, or string, with
|
|
elements @code{equal} to @code{object} removed. For example:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
(remove '(2) '((2) (1) (2)))
|
|
@result{} ((1))
|
|
@end group
|
|
@group
|
|
(remove '(2) [(2) (1) (2)])
|
|
@result{} [(1)]
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@quotation
|
|
@b{Common Lisp note:} The functions @code{member}, @code{delete} and
|
|
@code{remove} in GNU Emacs Lisp are derived from Maclisp, not Common
|
|
Lisp. The Common Lisp versions do not use @code{equal} to compare
|
|
elements.
|
|
@end quotation
|
|
|
|
@defun member-ignore-case object list
|
|
This function is like @code{member}, except that @var{object} should
|
|
be a string and that it ignores differences in letter-case and text
|
|
representation: upper-case and lower-case letters are treated as
|
|
equal, and unibyte strings are converted to multibyte prior to
|
|
comparison.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun delete-dups list
|
|
This function destructively removes all @code{equal} duplicates from
|
|
@var{list}, stores the result in @var{list} and returns it. Of
|
|
several @code{equal} occurrences of an element in @var{list},
|
|
@code{delete-dups} keeps the first one.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
See also the function @code{add-to-list}, in @ref{List Variables},
|
|
for a way to add an element to a list stored in a variable and used as a
|
|
set.
|
|
|
|
@node Association Lists
|
|
@section Association Lists
|
|
@cindex association list
|
|
@cindex alist
|
|
|
|
An @dfn{association list}, or @dfn{alist} for short, records a mapping
|
|
from keys to values. It is a list of cons cells called
|
|
@dfn{associations}: the @sc{car} of each cons cell is the @dfn{key}, and the
|
|
@sc{cdr} is the @dfn{associated value}.@footnote{This usage of ``key''
|
|
is not related to the term ``key sequence''; it means a value used to
|
|
look up an item in a table. In this case, the table is the alist, and
|
|
the alist associations are the items.}
|
|
|
|
Here is an example of an alist. The key @code{pine} is associated with
|
|
the value @code{cones}; the key @code{oak} is associated with
|
|
@code{acorns}; and the key @code{maple} is associated with @code{seeds}.
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
@group
|
|
((pine . cones)
|
|
(oak . acorns)
|
|
(maple . seeds))
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
Both the values and the keys in an alist may be any Lisp objects.
|
|
For example, in the following alist, the symbol @code{a} is
|
|
associated with the number @code{1}, and the string @code{"b"} is
|
|
associated with the @emph{list} @code{(2 3)}, which is the @sc{cdr} of
|
|
the alist element:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
((a . 1) ("b" 2 3))
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
Sometimes it is better to design an alist to store the associated
|
|
value in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr} of the element. Here is an
|
|
example of such an alist:
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
((rose red) (lily white) (buttercup yellow))
|
|
@end example
|
|
|
|
@noindent
|
|
Here we regard @code{red} as the value associated with @code{rose}. One
|
|
advantage of this kind of alist is that you can store other related
|
|
information---even a list of other items---in the @sc{cdr} of the
|
|
@sc{cdr}. One disadvantage is that you cannot use @code{rassq} (see
|
|
below) to find the element containing a given value. When neither of
|
|
these considerations is important, the choice is a matter of taste, as
|
|
long as you are consistent about it for any given alist.
|
|
|
|
The same alist shown above could be regarded as having the
|
|
associated value in the @sc{cdr} of the element; the value associated
|
|
with @code{rose} would be the list @code{(red)}.
|
|
|
|
Association lists are often used to record information that you might
|
|
otherwise keep on a stack, since new associations may be added easily to
|
|
the front of the list. When searching an association list for an
|
|
association with a given key, the first one found is returned, if there
|
|
is more than one.
|
|
|
|
In Emacs Lisp, it is @emph{not} an error if an element of an
|
|
association list is not a cons cell. The alist search functions simply
|
|
ignore such elements. Many other versions of Lisp signal errors in such
|
|
cases.
|
|
|
|
Note that property lists are similar to association lists in several
|
|
respects. A property list behaves like an association list in which
|
|
each key can occur only once. @xref{Property Lists}, for a comparison
|
|
of property lists and association lists.
|
|
|
|
@defun assoc key alist
|
|
This function returns the first association for @var{key} in
|
|
@var{alist}, comparing @var{key} against the alist elements using
|
|
@code{equal} (@pxref{Equality Predicates}). It returns @code{nil} if no
|
|
association in @var{alist} has a @sc{car} @code{equal} to @var{key}.
|
|
For example:
|
|
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
(setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)))
|
|
@result{} ((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))
|
|
(assoc 'oak trees)
|
|
@result{} (oak . acorns)
|
|
(cdr (assoc 'oak trees))
|
|
@result{} acorns
|
|
(assoc 'birch trees)
|
|
@result{} nil
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
|
|
Here is another example, in which the keys and values are not symbols:
|
|
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
(setq needles-per-cluster
|
|
'((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine")
|
|
(3 "Pitch Pine")
|
|
(5 "White Pine")))
|
|
|
|
(cdr (assoc 3 needles-per-cluster))
|
|
@result{} ("Pitch Pine")
|
|
(cdr (assoc 2 needles-per-cluster))
|
|
@result{} ("Austrian Pine" "Red Pine")
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
The function @code{assoc-string} is much like @code{assoc} except
|
|
that it ignores certain differences between strings. @xref{Text
|
|
Comparison}.
|
|
|
|
@defun rassoc value alist
|
|
This function returns the first association with value @var{value} in
|
|
@var{alist}. It returns @code{nil} if no association in @var{alist} has
|
|
a @sc{cdr} @code{equal} to @var{value}.
|
|
|
|
@code{rassoc} is like @code{assoc} except that it compares the @sc{cdr} of
|
|
each @var{alist} association instead of the @sc{car}. You can think of
|
|
this as ``reverse @code{assoc},'' finding the key for a given value.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun assq key alist
|
|
This function is like @code{assoc} in that it returns the first
|
|
association for @var{key} in @var{alist}, but it makes the comparison
|
|
using @code{eq} instead of @code{equal}. @code{assq} returns @code{nil}
|
|
if no association in @var{alist} has a @sc{car} @code{eq} to @var{key}.
|
|
This function is used more often than @code{assoc}, since @code{eq} is
|
|
faster than @code{equal} and most alists use symbols as keys.
|
|
@xref{Equality Predicates}.
|
|
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
(setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)))
|
|
@result{} ((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))
|
|
(assq 'pine trees)
|
|
@result{} (pine . cones)
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
|
|
On the other hand, @code{assq} is not usually useful in alists where the
|
|
keys may not be symbols:
|
|
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
(setq leaves
|
|
'(("simple leaves" . oak)
|
|
("compound leaves" . horsechestnut)))
|
|
|
|
(assq "simple leaves" leaves)
|
|
@result{} nil
|
|
(assoc "simple leaves" leaves)
|
|
@result{} ("simple leaves" . oak)
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun rassq value alist
|
|
This function returns the first association with value @var{value} in
|
|
@var{alist}. It returns @code{nil} if no association in @var{alist} has
|
|
a @sc{cdr} @code{eq} to @var{value}.
|
|
|
|
@code{rassq} is like @code{assq} except that it compares the @sc{cdr} of
|
|
each @var{alist} association instead of the @sc{car}. You can think of
|
|
this as ``reverse @code{assq},'' finding the key for a given value.
|
|
|
|
For example:
|
|
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
(setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)))
|
|
|
|
(rassq 'acorns trees)
|
|
@result{} (oak . acorns)
|
|
(rassq 'spores trees)
|
|
@result{} nil
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
|
|
@code{rassq} cannot search for a value stored in the @sc{car}
|
|
of the @sc{cdr} of an element:
|
|
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
(setq colors '((rose red) (lily white) (buttercup yellow)))
|
|
|
|
(rassq 'white colors)
|
|
@result{} nil
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
|
|
In this case, the @sc{cdr} of the association @code{(lily white)} is not
|
|
the symbol @code{white}, but rather the list @code{(white)}. This
|
|
becomes clearer if the association is written in dotted pair notation:
|
|
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
(lily white) @equiv{} (lily . (white))
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun assoc-default key alist &optional test default
|
|
This function searches @var{alist} for a match for @var{key}. For each
|
|
element of @var{alist}, it compares the element (if it is an atom) or
|
|
the element's @sc{car} (if it is a cons) against @var{key}, by calling
|
|
@var{test} with two arguments: the element or its @sc{car}, and
|
|
@var{key}. The arguments are passed in that order so that you can get
|
|
useful results using @code{string-match} with an alist that contains
|
|
regular expressions (@pxref{Regexp Search}). If @var{test} is omitted
|
|
or @code{nil}, @code{equal} is used for comparison.
|
|
|
|
If an alist element matches @var{key} by this criterion,
|
|
then @code{assoc-default} returns a value based on this element.
|
|
If the element is a cons, then the value is the element's @sc{cdr}.
|
|
Otherwise, the return value is @var{default}.
|
|
|
|
If no alist element matches @var{key}, @code{assoc-default} returns
|
|
@code{nil}.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun copy-alist alist
|
|
@cindex copying alists
|
|
This function returns a two-level deep copy of @var{alist}: it creates a
|
|
new copy of each association, so that you can alter the associations of
|
|
the new alist without changing the old one.
|
|
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
@group
|
|
(setq needles-per-cluster
|
|
'((2 . ("Austrian Pine" "Red Pine"))
|
|
(3 . ("Pitch Pine"))
|
|
@end group
|
|
(5 . ("White Pine"))))
|
|
@result{}
|
|
((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine")
|
|
(3 "Pitch Pine")
|
|
(5 "White Pine"))
|
|
|
|
(setq copy (copy-alist needles-per-cluster))
|
|
@result{}
|
|
((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine")
|
|
(3 "Pitch Pine")
|
|
(5 "White Pine"))
|
|
|
|
(eq needles-per-cluster copy)
|
|
@result{} nil
|
|
(equal needles-per-cluster copy)
|
|
@result{} t
|
|
(eq (car needles-per-cluster) (car copy))
|
|
@result{} nil
|
|
(cdr (car (cdr needles-per-cluster)))
|
|
@result{} ("Pitch Pine")
|
|
@group
|
|
(eq (cdr (car (cdr needles-per-cluster)))
|
|
(cdr (car (cdr copy))))
|
|
@result{} t
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
|
|
This example shows how @code{copy-alist} makes it possible to change
|
|
the associations of one copy without affecting the other:
|
|
|
|
@smallexample
|
|
@group
|
|
(setcdr (assq 3 copy) '("Martian Vacuum Pine"))
|
|
(cdr (assq 3 needles-per-cluster))
|
|
@result{} ("Pitch Pine")
|
|
@end group
|
|
@end smallexample
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun assq-delete-all key alist
|
|
This function deletes from @var{alist} all the elements whose @sc{car}
|
|
is @code{eq} to @var{key}, much as if you used @code{delq} to delete
|
|
each such element one by one. It returns the shortened alist, and
|
|
often modifies the original list structure of @var{alist}. For
|
|
correct results, use the return value of @code{assq-delete-all} rather
|
|
than looking at the saved value of @var{alist}.
|
|
|
|
@example
|
|
(setq alist '((foo 1) (bar 2) (foo 3) (lose 4)))
|
|
@result{} ((foo 1) (bar 2) (foo 3) (lose 4))
|
|
(assq-delete-all 'foo alist)
|
|
@result{} ((bar 2) (lose 4))
|
|
alist
|
|
@result{} ((foo 1) (bar 2) (lose 4))
|
|
@end example
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun rassq-delete-all value alist
|
|
This function deletes from @var{alist} all the elements whose @sc{cdr}
|
|
is @code{eq} to @var{value}. It returns the shortened alist, and
|
|
often modifies the original list structure of @var{alist}.
|
|
@code{rassq-delete-all} is like @code{assq-delete-all} except that it
|
|
compares the @sc{cdr} of each @var{alist} association instead of the
|
|
@sc{car}.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@node Rings
|
|
@section Managing a Fixed-Size Ring of Objects
|
|
|
|
@cindex ring data structure
|
|
This section describes functions for operating on rings. A
|
|
@dfn{ring} is a fixed-size data structure that supports insertion,
|
|
deletion, rotation, and modulo-indexed reference and traversal.
|
|
|
|
@defun make-ring size
|
|
This returns a new ring capable of holding @var{size} objects.
|
|
@var{size} should be an integer.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun ring-p object
|
|
This returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a ring, @code{nil} otherwise.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun ring-size ring
|
|
This returns the maximum capacity of the @var{ring}.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun ring-length ring
|
|
This returns the number of objects that @var{ring} currently contains.
|
|
The value will never exceed that returned by @code{ring-size}.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun ring-elements ring
|
|
This returns a list of the objects in @var{ring}, in order, newest first.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun ring-copy ring
|
|
This returns a new ring which is a copy of @var{ring}.
|
|
The new ring contains the same (@code{eq}) objects as @var{ring}.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun ring-empty-p ring
|
|
This returns @code{t} if @var{ring} is empty, @code{nil} otherwise.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
The newest element in the ring always has index 0. Higher indices
|
|
correspond to older elements. Indices are computed modulo the ring
|
|
length. Index @minus{}1 corresponds to the oldest element, @minus{}2
|
|
to the next-oldest, and so forth.
|
|
|
|
@defun ring-ref ring index
|
|
This returns the object in @var{ring} found at index @var{index}.
|
|
@var{index} may be negative or greater than the ring length. If
|
|
@var{ring} is empty, @code{ring-ref} signals an error.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun ring-insert ring object
|
|
This inserts @var{object} into @var{ring}, making it the newest
|
|
element, and returns @var{object}.
|
|
|
|
If the ring is full, insertion removes the oldest element to
|
|
make room for the new element.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun ring-remove ring &optional index
|
|
Remove an object from @var{ring}, and return that object. The
|
|
argument @var{index} specifies which item to remove; if it is
|
|
@code{nil}, that means to remove the oldest item. If @var{ring} is
|
|
empty, @code{ring-remove} signals an error.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@defun ring-insert-at-beginning ring object
|
|
This inserts @var{object} into @var{ring}, treating it as the oldest
|
|
element. The return value is not significant.
|
|
|
|
If the ring is full, this function removes the newest element to make
|
|
room for the inserted element.
|
|
@end defun
|
|
|
|
@cindex fifo data structure
|
|
If you are careful not to exceed the ring size, you can
|
|
use the ring as a first-in-first-out queue. For example:
|
|
|
|
@lisp
|
|
(let ((fifo (make-ring 5)))
|
|
(mapc (lambda (obj) (ring-insert fifo obj))
|
|
'(0 one "two"))
|
|
(list (ring-remove fifo) t
|
|
(ring-remove fifo) t
|
|
(ring-remove fifo)))
|
|
@result{} (0 t one t "two")
|
|
@end lisp
|
|
|
|
@ignore
|
|
arch-tag: 31fb8a4e-4aa8-4a74-a206-aa00451394d4
|
|
@end ignore
|